ABSTRACTS OF JOURNAL ARTICLES
                   

There has been a substantial number of research studies published
in journals, particularly in the School Food Service Research
Review and the Journal of the American Dietetic Association.  In
addition, other journals such as the Journal of School Health,
Journal of Community Health, and the Journal of Foodservice Systems
have published research related or applicable to Child Nutrition
Programs (CNP).

This section of the report presents abstracts of articles published
since 1985 that are related to CNP.  The abstracts are sorted into
16 content categories.  Within each category, citations are
included in chronological order with the most recent year first.

All abstracts originally printed in the School Food Service
Research Review are reprinted with permission of the American
School Food Service Association (ASFSA).  We appreciate the
cooperation and support of ASFSA and acknowledge the contributions
of the many researchers who conducted the research that is
reported.     
     
                CHILD CARE AND SUMMER FOOD SERVICE 
                                  
Position of The American Dietetic Association:  Nutrition standards
for child care programs.  Journal of the American Dietetic
Association, 94, 323.

The position statement states that "it is the position of The
American Dietetic Association (ADA) that all child care programs
should achieve recommended standards for meeting children's
nutrition and education needs in a safe, sanitary, supportive
environment that promotes healthy growth and development." 
Standards are presented related to meal plans, preparation and
foodservice, nutrition consultation and guidance, nutrition
education and training, physical and emotional environment, and
compliance with local and state regulations.


Briley, M.E., & Roberts-Gray, C. (1994).  Nutrition standards in
child care programs:  Technical support paper.  Journal of the
American Dietetic Association, 94, 324-328.

This paper provides support for the American Dietetic Association's
(ADA) position paper on nutrition standards for child care
programs.  Guidance related to meal plans include:  menus should be
nutritionally adequate; menus should be consistent with the Dietary
Guidelines for Americans; and meals and snacks should follow
recommended patterns with appropriate accommodations for ages of
children, number of hours they spend at the center or FDCH, and
cultural or ethnic differences in food habits.  Standards related
to food preparation and foodservice include:  the additional of
fat, sugar, and sources of sodium should be minimized in food
preparation and foodservice; plenty of fresh fruits, fresh or
frozen vegetables, and whole-grain products should be used; foods
should be provided in quantities that balance energy and nutrients
with the children's small appetites; food preparation and service
should be consistent with best practices for food safety and
sanitation.  The standard related to nutrition consultation and
guidance states that child care programs should  obtain
consultation and guidance from registered dietitians on a regularly
scheduled basis.  Standards related to nutrition education and
training are:  nutrition education should be a component of the
child care program; and caregivers should receive appropriate
nutrition and foodservice training.  Physical and emotional
environment standards include:  furniture and eating utensils
should be age appropriate and developmentally suitable to encourage
children to accept and enjoy mealtime; and staff should maintain a
positive emotional climate at mealtimes.  The final standard
related to compliance with local and state regulations states that
child care programs must comply with local and state regulations
related to wholesomeness of food, food preparation facilities, food
safety, and sanitation.


Briley, M.E., Roberts-Gray, C., & Simpson, D. (1994). 
Identification of factors that influence the menu at child care
centers:  A grounded theory approach.  Journal of the American
Dietetic Association, 94, 276-281.

The purpose of this study was to identify factors that influence
the menus at child care centers.  Site visits to three child care
centers in Texas were made to collect quantitative and qualitative
data on menus, food preparation, and foodservice.  A model of
factors that influence the menu was developed for the study and
grounded theory methods were used to test the model.  This study
indicated that the major factors influencing menus were:  food
program requirements, staff perceptions of children's food
preferences, history of the food program at the center, and cost. 
Conclusions drawn from this study are:  menus in child care centers
need to be improved, training of staff is needed, and changes in
program requirements may need to be made.


Briley, M.E., Roberts-Gray, C., & Rowe, S. (1993).  What can
children learn from the menu at the child care center?  Journal of
Community Health, 18, 363-377.

The objectives of this study were to determine the strengths and
weaknesses in child care menus and to provide information to build
on the accomplishments of CACFP to ensure that menus provide food
for good nutrition and teaching children healthy eating habits. 
Requests for 10 days of menus were mailed to 350 child care
facilities in seven states.  Menus met 100% of the RDA for B12,
protein, ascorbic acid, and Vitamin A, and 67% of the RDA for
riboflavin and calcium.  Only 42% of the RDA for iron was met.  On
average the menus provided only 40% of the RDA for kilocalories and
48% of the RDA for niacin.  The percentage of calories from fat
averaged 34.2%.  Menus strengths were:  at least three servings of
fruits and vegetables were provided, fats and sweets were used
sparingly, and salted meats were used infrequently.  Strategies
were presented for ensuring that day care centers provide food that
meets the needs of children and helps them learn healthy eating
habits.


Drake, M.A. (1992).  Menu evaluation, nutrient intake of young
children, and nutrition knowledge of menu planners in child care
centers in Missouri.  Journal of Nutrition Education, 24, 145-148.

This paper reports findings of three surveys of licensed child care
centers in Missouri related to the nutrition content of the menus,
food and nutrients consumed by children, and the nutrition
knowledge of the individuals planning menus.  Sets of 10-day menus
were collected from 46 randomly selected licensed day care
facilities.  Food consumption was determined for 120 children at
four centers.  All portions were weighed before serving to the
child.  A multiple choice test was mailed to 460 child care centers
and the individual responsible for menu planning was asked to
complete the test.  Almost all menus provided 91% or more of the
standard for calcium, thiamin, ascorbic acid, riboflavin, and
niacin.  The amounts of energy, iron, zinc, vitamin A, and folic
acid were less than 75% of standard.  The children did not consume
adequate amounts of most nutrients.  Individuals involved in
planning menus had limited knowledge about food sources of
nutrients.  The use of registered dietitians to review menus, give
ideas to promote meal consumption, and provide nutrition education
workshops would be appropriate.


Pond-Smith, D., Richarz, S.H., & Gonzalez, N.L. (1992).  A survey
of foodservice operations in child care centers in Washington
State.  Journal of American Dietetic Association, 92, 483-484.

The purpose of this study was to determine characteristics of
foodservice operations in a sample of licensed, full-day child care
centers in Washington State.  Questionnaires were developed and
distributed to 620 randomly selected profit and not-for-profit day
care centers; 211 questionnaires were returned.  The questionnaire
requested information on menu planning, food purchasing,
preparation, and qualifications and education of staff.  Seventy
percent used a cycle menu, and 71% used on-site meal preparation. 
Sixty percent had less than 2 years of college and of these 7% had
specific training in foodservice.  Only 34% had attended workshops
in nutrition and/or training on sanitation and safety.  Training in
menu planning, quantity food preparation, sanitation, and
compliance to nutrition standards is needed by all foodservice
staff in day-care centers.


Wright, D.E., & Radcliffe, J.D. (1992).  Parents' perceptions of
influences on food behavior development of children attending day
care facilities.  Journal of Nutrition Education, 24, 198-201.

The purpose of this study was to determine if parents of preschool
children perceived that the development of their children's food
behaviors was being influenced by preschool/child care facilities. 
A structured interview was used to collect data from 68 parents. 
The parents had children ages 4-6 years old who were in day care an
average of 8.5 hours per day.  Of the children in the study, 69%
ate school provided meals and 28% brought lunches from home. 
Forty-four percent of parents felt that teachers were responsible
to see that their child ate appropriately at school.  Related to
learning about new foods, 54% of parents felt that home was more
influential than the day care.  Home was rated as primary influence
by 59% of parents regarding the introduction of new foods, and by
62% of the parents for trying new foods.  A majority (56%) of
parents agreed that they are responsible for teaching appropriate
food choices to their children.  Eighty-seven percent of parents
felt that the government should regulate nutrition requirements in
preschool/day care programs.  This study indicates that parents may
be relinquishing some of their influence on their children's food
behavior to staff at day care facilities.


Dirige, O.V., Oglesby, A.C., & Bassoff, B.Z. (1991).  An assessment
of the nutrition education needs of day care providers.  Journal of
the American Dietetic Association, 91, 714-715.

The purposes of this study were to assess the nutrition training
needs of day care providers in San Diego County, conduct a 1-hour
nutrition education session, and develop a nutrition manual to
provide guidelines on criteria for state licensure of day care
providers.  Questionnaires were mailed to 3,000 licensed day care
providers, 195 responded.  A large percentage (94%) of respondents
were interested in receiving nutrition information and 46% were
interested in attending a half-day workshop.   Planning meals for
preschoolers and developing good food habits were the two nutrition
topics receiving the most interest.  The 1-hour session was deemed
to be too short to cover nutrition adequately.  Materials and
training sessions are needed and desired for day care providers.


Luckhardt, W.E., & Diana, M.S. (1991).  Factors affecting child-
care program menu planning.  School Food Service Research Review,
15, 105-110.

The purpose of this research was to identify factors that may
contribute to success in planning menus that meet Child and Adult
Care Program (CACFP) food component requirements.  Factors explored
included:  course work in nutrition taken by the menu planner; how
long the center has been involved in the program; menu planner's
attendance at program-sponsored workshops; the use of a printed
resource; the category of child-care center; and ease or difficulty
of interpreting select program materials supplied by each state
relevant to menu planning.  A sample of licensed CACFP participants
in the states of Michigan, Ohio, Minnesota, and Wisconsin were
surveyed.  One hundred thirty-six (14%) respondents returned snack
and lunch menus.  Attendance at a workshop was identified (p=.02)
as a significant factor in planning snack menus that meet CACFP
requirements.


Cavin, E.S., Ohls, J.C., Kisker, E.E., & Chapman, N. (1991).  An
evaluation of the summer food service program.  School Food Service
Research Review, 15, 99-104.

This paper reports the results of an evaluation of the Summer Food
Service Program, which provides food to children during the summer
when the National School Lunch Program is not available.  It
describes the programmatic background, evaluation design and
results of the study, with specific reference to the responsiveness
of the program to its objective of providing nutrition to low-
income children and issues of program integrity.  The data used in
the study were drawn from a statistical sample of 208 program
sponsors in 17 states.  Data on program participation, meal service
and content, and program costs were collected from a combination of
administrative records, sponsor interviews and on-site observation
of meal service by study staff.  On the whole, the program was
found to be reasonably well run, with a minimum of deliberate
abuse, and effective in providing food to low-income children
during much of the summer program season.


Briley, M.E., Buller, A.C., Roberts-Gray, C.R., & Sparkman, A.
(1989).  What is on the menu at the child care center?  Journal of
the American Dietetic Association, 89, 771-774.

The purpose of this commentary was to discuss what was on child
care center menus and how well it matches standards endorsed by the
U.S. Department of Agriculture and by the American Dietetic
Association.  In addition to the well-documented problem of low
iron in children's menus, child care centers also were found to
fall seriously short of meeting children's need for calories. 
Child care provider surveys reveal positive attitudes about
nutrition but that they may lack knowledge about how to plan menus
to meet children's needs.  Additional research is needed on
modifying meal pattern requirements for young children to
accommodate smaller portion sizes while still meeting two-thirds of
their Recommended Dietary Allowance.


Briley, M.E., Coyle, E., Roberts-Gray, C., & Sparkman, A. (1989). 
Nutrition knowledge and attitudes and menu planning skills of
family day-home providers.  Journal of the American Dietetic
Association, 89, 694-695.

The purpose of this study was to determine the nutrient content of
menus and evaluate the nutrition knowledge and attitudes of family
day-care home providers participating in the child care food
program.  Site visits were made to 29 family day care homes. 
During the visit, 10-day menus were collected, quantities of food
served at the noon meal were measured, and a knowledge and attitude
instrument was administered.  Menus were nutritionally adequate and
appealing, except that iron content was below 50% of the
Recommended Dietary Allowances.  At least 70% of the meal providers
gave correct answers to nutrition-related questions.  Continuing
education for child care program providers will enhance the health
and well-being of children.


Roberts-Gray, C., Sparkman, A.F., Simmons, L.F., Buller, A.C., &
Engquist, K. (1989).  Evaluation of Texas' child-care-oriented
nutrition education and training program.  Journal of Nutrition
Education, 21, 16-24.

The purpose of this research was to evaluate the overall
effectiveness of the Texas Nutrition Education and Training (NET)
Program and examine the connection between NET resources and
children's nutritional status.  Five studies were conducted to
evaluate changes in the attitudes, behaviors, and knowledge of
childcare personnel related to child nutrition.  These studies
tested the theoretical model upon which the NET program is based. 
The results showed that workshops helped participants improve
knowledge and attitudes.  Research also found that NET materials
were not being used fully.  Nutrition instruction in day care
centers that participated in NET workshops was better than non-
participating centers, but fell short of the ideal.  Problems
diagnosed in day care center menus (i.e., deficiencies in food
energy, iron, and variety of fruit) persisted 6-12 weeks after the
staff participated in a menu planning workshop.  However the same
pattern was observed in a comparison group.  It was concluded that
the Texas NET program had a positive effect.  The NET model needs
to be expanded in order to have a greater impact on participant's
behavior.

                   COMPUTER APPLICATIONS
      
     
Brewer, K.P., DeMicco, F.J, & Conn, R.E.  (1993).  Computer
hardware and software use in school food service operations. 
School Food Service Research Review, 17, 120-124.
 
The importance of technology in school food service is well
documented.  Use of the appropriate computer hardware and software
can significantly aid school food service directors in their
operations.  Experts have identified the importance of computer use
to school food service directors, yet how many districts actually
employ this tool?  This study of 266 Mid-Atlantic school food
service directors shows that while 60% of the school food service
directors in the study use computer technology in some capacity,
fewer than 28% use comprehensive food service management systems.


Rhoades, P.K., & Hardy, C.L.  (1993).  Computer learning styles and
anxiety of child nutrition program personnel.  School Food Service
Research Review, 17, 36-40.

A survey was conducted to assess the computer learning styles and
anxiety of child nutrition program personnel prior to implementing
an automated point-of-sale system.  The researchers hypothesized
that age, typing ability, and learning styles used for other
electronic devices (e.g. experimentation, reading operation manual,
watching demonstration) would be related to computer competence. 
All managers, clerks, cashiers, and central office personnel
(n=187) completed a written questionnaire.  The 34 questions
examined how subjects learned to use various electronic devices and
their attitude about learning to use computers.  Chi square
analyses were used to examine relationships.  Respondents included
37% clerks, 36% managers, and 17% cashiers.  Most of the subjects
were 30 to 39 years of age.  One hundred and eight people had no
computer experience, 35 rated their ability to use computers as
"novice", and 44 rated their ability as "average".  Age, education
level, ethnic origin, and typing ability were not found to be
associated with overall computer ability.  Job position (p=0.01)
and years of job experience (p=0.03) were associated with computer
ability.  Demonstration was the most commonly used learning method
for computers and cash registers, but not calculators or
typewriters.  The majority (77%) of respondents reported not being
worried about using computers.  As assessment of employees'
computer anxiety and preferred learning styles can provide needed
data to guide computer training.


Kim, S.L., & Matthews, M.E.  (1990).  Needs for computer systems
and software available for school food services.  School Food
Service Research Review, 14, 38-41.

Two questionnaires were used to obtain information on use of
computers in school food service in 1988.  One questionnaire was
used to determine needs of American School Food Service Association
(ASFSA) members for selecting and using computers and software for
school food service operations.  The other questionnaire was used
to identify software for school food service available
commercially.  The needs survey questionnaire was pretested at the
1988 ASFSA Industry Seminar in San Diego, California.  Some
modifications were made.  The final questionnaire was published in
the April, 1988 School Food Service Journal and readers were asked
to return completed forms to the ASFSA headquarters office.  The
other questionnaire was mailed to twenty software vendors who
exhibited at the 1987 ASFSA Annual National Conference in Salt Lake
City.  The accounts payable/receivable/state report was the general
function most frequently used by respondents (N=86, 56%) and also
was the most frequently available function from software vendors
(N=12, 92%).  Production was the least used function (N=22, 14%)
although ten of the thirteen vendors offered this software
function.  Menu planning (N=8, 62%) was the least available
function from software vendors.  Although twelve of the thirteen
vendors had been in business for three or more years, only seven
provided school food service software.  Findings from this study
suggest the need for establishment of a resource center to provide
information and training on emerging areas of concern to computer
users in school food services.


Bender, J.R., & Matthews, M.E.  (1989).  Computer systems in food
services:  A review of applications and potential benefits.  School
Food Service Research Review, 13, 150-156.

This article reviewed the historical development of computer
applications in food service and identified potential benefits of
these systems to managers.  The original uses of computers in
foodservice were routine, clerical, and simple tasks.  Applications
have been expanded to include inventory control and purchasing
systems, forecasting, recipe adjustment, production control, tray
assembly and delivery, and menu planning.  Food service managers
must take advantage of computers in order to function effectively
and efficiently.  Computers should allow food service managers to
spend more time managing and problem solving and less time doing
paperwork. 


Ralston, C.E., Matthews, M.E., & Schaefer, D.  (1988).  Comparison
of two software programs for school foodservice management for
MS/DOS compatible computers.  School Food Service Research Review,
12, 69-74.

Computers are capable of reducing the time spent in repetitive data
handling procedures.  Middleton-Cross Plains Area School District
(Wis.) wished to computerize the end-of-month tabulation of each
school's inventory into a district total and value the total
inventory.  As part of a course requirement, the first author
compared the features of two pieces of software under consideration
by the school district.  Each piece of software considered was
copied onto the hard disk of an IBM-PC XT compatible computer.  The
instructions in the manuals were followed to create a school
district and simulate a month's transactions.  The reports and data
handling capabilities of the software were compared.  The programs
had some features in common, but each program handled certain
aspects in different ways.  Neither program could calculate monthly
food cost, but would value inventory.  During certain operations,
both programs made the computer unavailable for other operations. 
Modifications are suggested for both programs.  Each of the
programs provided more features than were required by this school
district.                
                 DIETARY GUIDELINES FOR AMERICANS

     
Gregoire, M.B., & Sneed, J. (1993).  Barriers and needs related to
procurement and implementation of the dietary guidelines.  School
Food Service Research Review, 17, 46-49.

The paper presents results of a Delphi process to determine
barriers, research needs, and training needs related to procurement
in child nutrition programs and implementation of the Dietary
Guidelines for American (DGAs).  Panel members (n=17) expressed the
greatest agreement on barriers such as lack of benchmarks for
nutritional quality of school meals, eating habits of children, and
limited employee time and financial resources for product
evaluation.  Research areas of greatest importance focused on
determining how to measure implementation of the DGAs.  Training
topics of highest importance were evaluating the nutritional
quality of food items and menu planning.


Nicklas, T.A., Reed, D.B., Rupp, J., Snyder, P., Clesi, A.L.,
Glovsky, E., Bigelow, C., & Obarzanek, E. (1992).  Reducing total
fat, saturated fatty acids, and sodium:  The CATCH eat smart school
nutrition program.  School Food Service Research Review, 16, 114-
121.

The Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health (CATCH) is
a multisite research study designed to assess the combined effects
of school- and family-based interventions for promoting healthful
behaviors in elementary school children and adolescents to reduce
their subsequent cardiovascular disease risk.  The  school-based
interventions include classroom curricula and school environment
modifications.  As part of the environmental program, school lunch
modifications in the Eat Smart School Nutrition Program were
developed and tested at eight schools in four sites.  The
objectives for the program were to reduce the average amount of
total fat to 30% or less of total energy, saturated fatty acids to
10% or less of energy, and sodium by at least 25% in school lunches
served.  Guidelines were developed and implemented in six areas:
menu planning, food purchasing, recipe modification, food
preparation, food production, and food merchandising.  Analyses of
modified school lunch menus compared to original menus showed that
energy from total fat, energy from saturated fatty acids, and
sodium were reduced 11%, 13%, and 13%, respectively, while
maintaining the RDAs for all vitamins and minerals.  Data
demonstrate that child nutrition staff can successfully reduce the
total fat, saturated fat, and sodium content of school menus.


Snyder, M.P., Story, M., & Trenkner, L.L. (1992).  Reducing fat and
sodium in school lunch programs:  The LUNCHPOWER! Intervention
Study.  Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 92, 1087-
1091.

The purpose of this study was to develop, implement, and evaluate
a healthful school lunch program for elementary students that
offered tasty food choices that were lower in fat and sodium than
foods previously offered.  The program modified familiar menu items
reducing fat and sodium through food selection, recipe
modification, and serving methods.  In addition, nutrition
education messages were developed for students and their parents
for the 5-month intervention.  The intervention was implemented
with about 16,300 students, grades 1-6 who attended 34 public
elementary schools in four Minnesota school districts.  Menus for
72 days were analyzed, mean daily fat content decreased 39% (from
32 g to 20 g).  Sodium content was not decreased significantly,
however the lunch menus' mean sodium content at baseline (1,136 mg
sodium) did not deviate greatly from the goal of providing 1,000 mg
per lunch.  The program did not affect the percentage of students
participating in the school lunch program.  Overall it was observed
that healthier menus could be served and well accepted by school
lunch participants without lowering participation.


Glover, P.K., Stitt, K.R., Kendrick, O.W., & Hayes, J.S. (1991). 
Dietary guidelines: Knowledge of and use by dietary managers. 
School Food Service Research Review, 15, 111-113.

The purpose of this study was to ascertain the knowledge and use of
the Dietary Guidelines for Americans by a random sample of child
nutrition managers who are members of the American School Food
Service Association (ASFSA) in the southeastern area of the U.S. 
The majority of the managers had a high school education and about
15 years of experience in school food service.  Managers had a good
knowledge of the Guidelines but in general were not utilizing them
when serving meals to children.  At the time of the study (1988),
emphasis had just begun on education programs concerning use of the
Guidelines for managers.  Managers expected the modified recipes
from the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) to assist
them in preparing healthier meals.


Powers, P.M., & Hoffman, C.J. (1991).  Current practices that
influence fiber and fat content in lunches for Michigan class A
schools.  School Food Service Research Review, 15, 91-98.

The purpose of this study was to identify current practices that
affect the fiber and fat in lunches from selected Michigan schools. 
Surveys (n=116) were mailed to school food service directors and
included four components:  general information such as ethnic
groups served, price, and choices available; frequency of offering
high fiber foods; identification of fat in lunches such as
frequency of offering lean meats, legumes, and fish; evaluation of
preparation methods; and identification of nutrients calculated by
school districts.  Surveys returned (n=66 or 57%) were analyzed
using the SPSS-X system.  Analysis of fiber content focused on use
of whole wheat flour and fresh fruits and vegetables.  More whole
wheat bread than any other type of bread was served to elementary,
middle, and high school students in 17.3, 21.8 and 26.3% of
districts, respectively.  Fresh fruit was offered daily to students
in high, middle, and elementary schools in 80.3, 70.8, and 37.5% of
districts, respectively.  In the elementary schools, only 20% of
the districts offered fresh vegetables.  More than 80% of the
districts purchased beef that was 80% lean by weight, and nearly
50% used it as an entree two to three times per week.  Pizza with
meat was offered daily in 39% of all districts and cheese pizza in
20% of the districts.  Nine of the 66 districts served hot dogs
daily and 17 served luncheon meats daily.  Twenty-seven (41.5%)
used legumes or nuts as an alternate for meat.  Some types of fish
were served one to four times per month in 50% of the districts;
butter was used to season vegetables in 65.2% of the districts. 
Fifteen (22.7%) and 25 (37.8%) reported skim milk was offered to
elementary and high school students, respectively.  Student
preferences and the commodities available were the factors with the
strongest influence on menu planning and purchasing decisions.


Hall, H.C., & Read, M.H. (1990).  Personal compliance of school
nutrition directors with the dietary guidelines.  School Food
Service Research Review, 14, 114-117.

One hundred sixty-five school food service directors in the state
of Georgia responded to a mail survey designed to determine self-
reported compliance with the seven Dietary Guidelines, perceived
feeling of adequacy of preparation to implement the Dietary
Guidelines, and demographic information. Results indicated that a
majority (ò 50%) of the school nutrition directors reported they
"consistently" or "usually" complied with the seven dietary
recommendations.  Highest compliance was reported for the Dietary
Guideline "If you drink alcoholic beverages, do so in moderation";
lowest compliance was reported for the Dietary Guideline "Maintain
ideal body weight."  With respect to adequacy of preparation to
implement the Dietary Guidelines, 48% of the directors rated their
preparation as "adequate" or "very adequate."  Adequacy of
preparation was positively related (p=0.03) to attendance at the
state Department of Education's conference on implementing the
Dietary Guidelines.  Adequacy of preparation also was related to
personal compliance with the Dietary Guidelines dealing with starch
and fiber (p=0.03), fat, saturated fat, and cholesterol (p=0.04)
and avoiding too much sugar (p=0.02).


DeMicco, F.J. (1990).  Identification of barriers that impede
school food services from implementing the dietary guidelines. 
School Food Service Research Review, 14, 10-13.

This pilot study utilized a qualitative research methodology to
investigate implementation of the U.S. Dietary Guidelines in eight
elementary school food service programs geographically dispersed
throughout Pennsylvania.  At each site, four study participants
(food service directors, managers, cooks, and business managers)
were interviewed to determine their awareness of the Dietary
Guidelines, how these were being implemented, barriers to
implementation, and suggestions for changing current menus to
reflect the Dietary Guidelines.  Barriers that impeded
implementation of the guidelines included lack of classroom
education and parental support to reinforce practices of the food
service program, financial constraints of changing menus,
maintaining (or increasing) current participation rates, and the
nutritional quality of available government commodities perceived
as inconsistent with the Dietary Guidelines.  Resources identified
by key informants to implement the guidelines included new or
modified recipes, education programs, and reference materials.


Cobia, F.J., & Stitt, K.R. (1990).  Dietary guidelines:  Rationale
for these recommendations.  School Food Service Research Review,
14, 5-9.

The purpose of this article is to review rationale for the Dietary
Guidelines for healthy adults as approved by the U.S. Departments
of Agriculture/Health and Human Services.  When appropriate,
specific guidelines of other scientific organizations such as the
National Research Council, National Cancer Institute, American
Heart Association, and American Diabetes Association as well as the
Surgeon General's Report are included.  Guidelines reviewed
include: maintain desirable weight; reduce and change the type of
fat; eat foods with adequate starch and fiber; avoid too much
sugar; avoid too much sodium; eat a variety of foods; and if you
drink alcohol, do so in moderation.  Understanding the rationale
for these guidelines should enable school food service employees to
make changes in food selection and preparation techniques.


Sandoval, W.M., Lockner, D.W., & Adkins, E.W. (1986).  Modified
school lunch menus based on the dietary guidelines.  II.
Acceptability as determined by plate waste.  School Food Service
Research Review, 10, 31-34.

Modification in school lunch menus must be accepted by students
before any benefit can be realized.  Observation plate waste
studies were used to determine acceptability of specific menu items
modified according to the  recommendations of the Dietary
Guidelines for Americans.  The modified menus are part of the
School Nutrition Action Program (SNAP) which is designed to offer
alternative breakfast and lunch menus and promote nutrition
education in the classroom for participating elementary schools. 
Menu items chosen for comparison included:  high-fat and low-fat
entrees; whole grain and enriched grain products; fresh fruits and
vegetables versus canned items.  The low-fat entrees, whole grain
rolls, and fresh vegetables were accepted as well by students as
the traditional menu items.  The baked potato and fresh fruit were
less accepted than the traditional items.  Further research on
acceptability of other specific food items modified to reduce the
fat, sugar, and/or sodium content and to increase fiber will help
school food service personnel develop school lunch menus to meet
current dietary recommendations.


Sandoval, W.M., Lockner, D.W., & Adkins, E.W. (1986).  Modified
school lunch menus based on the dietary guidelines.  I. Nutrient
analysis of menus and student attitude survey.  School Food Service
Research Review, 10, 26-30.

School lunch menus were modified to include low-fat entrees, whole
grain bread products, and fresh fruits and vegetables, as
recommended in the Dietary Guidelines for Americans.  The School
Nutrition Action Program (SNAP) menus were compared to traditional
lunch menus and to one-third of the Recommended Dietary Allowances
(RDA) for children 7-to-10 years of age to determine differences in
nutrient content.  Students' attitude toward both types of menus
and to school lunch in general also were  assessed.  No significant
differences were found between the two types of menus for 10 key
nutrients.  Both menus met or exceeded one-third of the RDA for the
following nutrients:  protein, vitamins A and C, riboflavin,
thiamin, calcium, iron and phosphorus.  The energy value of both
the menus was below the RDA.  The major components of the Dietary
Guidelines were implemented in the menus.  Students had a more
positive attitude toward school lunch in schools serving the
modified menu.  This positive attitude and continued exposure to
the types of foods recommended by the Dietary Guidelines may
improve lifelong food choices.                
              EMPLOYEE TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT
     
     
Neilson, M., & Gould, R. (1993).  Computer-assisted instruction: 
An alternative approach for training school food service personnel. 
School Food Service Research Review, 17, 115-119.

Computer skills are essential for the school food service employee
of the future.  Numerous methods have been reported on how to teach
computer literacy to employees.  This article describes the use of
computer-assisted instruction (CAI) as a training tool.  Two CAI
modules, Basics of Computer Use and Basics of Electronic
Spreadsheets, were developed and evaluated by 42 school food
service personnel.  The typical participant was a manager or
supervisor (76%) with a high school education (50%) and more than
five years of experience working in school food service (76%). 
Participants were asked if they liked the CAI technique, and 97%
reported favorably.  All the participants rated the modules and the
user's manuals at least a 3.31 or higher on a 5-point scale. 
Forty-four percent of the participants indicated that they "feared"
computers before going to the training session.  After the training
session, 83% of the participants indicated that they did not fear
the computer.  The authors concluded that computer-assisted
instruction is a viable means of training school food service
employees; however, more research is needed using CAI in larger
groups.  CAI  expands the computer experience of employees and can
be developed for other training needs such as menu planning, cost
control, and food safety.


Sneed, J., & White, K.T. (1993).  Continuing education needs of
school-level managers in child nutrition programs.  School Food
Service Research Review, 17, 103-108.

The purposes of this study were to determine continuing education
needs of school food service managers as perceived by managers and
directors/supervisors, and to assess if perceived continuing
education needs were related to demographic variables.  A national
sample of 1,200 managers and 1,200 directors and supervisors were
mailed a questionnaire designed to determine managers' perceptions
of continuing education needs for 48 job-related areas and
directors'/supervisors' perceived needs for the managers that they
supervise.  Responses rates were 42% for managers and 64% for
directors and supervisors.  Managers rated the following areas as
having the highest need for continuing education:  State and
federal regulations; laws affecting personnel; health and safety
laws, inspection, and enforcement; work simplification; employee
motivation; transmitting child nutrition mission and values;
building professionalism in staff; time management; building
teamwork; and employee relations.  Mean ratings were higher for
directors/supervisors than for managers for all continuing
education areas.  Perceived continuing education needs were related
to the type of food production system used, grade levels in the
school, certification status, years of food service experience,
years of school food service experience, and education level. 
Generally, perceived needs for continuing education increased as
education level, years of food service work experience, and years
of school food service work experience increased.  Certified
managers had higher ratings for perceived continuing education than
did managers who were not certified.  Our findings identify areas
for planning continuing education programs and may be used by many
groups including the National Food Service Management Institute,
state agencies, school food authorities, colleges and universities,
professional associations, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture
as they plan and provide training and continuing education programs
for school food service managers.


Sneed, J., & White, K.T. (1993).  Development and validation of
competency statements for managers in school food service.  School
Food Service Research Review, 17, 50-61.

The major purposes of this study were to develop a comprehensive
list of competency statements related to the jobs of school food
service managers, validate the competency statements by determining
ratings of importance and frequency of performance, and determine
how managers' ratings of importance and frequency of performance
differ for these competencies based on school variables (school
enrollment, production system, and grade levels in the school) and
personal variables of the school food service managers
(certification status, years worked in food service, years worked
in school food service, and education level).  Based on the
literature review and pilot test processes, 124 competency
statements were developed.  Written questionnaires that included
importance and frequency of performance scales were mailed to a
randomly selected, national sample of 1,200 school food service
managers and 1,200 district directors/supervisors.  Response rates
were 42% for the managers and 64% for the directors/supervisors. 
Competency statements rated highest were related to safety,
personal hygiene, sanitation, food temperatures, service of meals,
and adherence to federal regulations.  Several school and personal
variables were related to important ratings for the competencies. 
Twelve content areas were identified using factor analysis. 
Findings from this study will be useful in developing knowledge and
skill statements necessary for curriculum development; planning for
continuing education programs also will be facilitated.  School
administrators and food service directors/supervisors can use these
results for preparing job descriptions and performance evaluation
instruments.


Peck, H.I., Carroll, A., & LaPorte, M. (1992).  The concurrent
validation of the Louisiana food and nutrition services managers
certification examinations.  School Food Service Research Review,
16, 122-124.

The purpose of this research was to study the concurrent validity
between the Food Protection Certification Test (FPCT) and the
safety and sanitation subscale of Phase I and Phase II of the
Louisiana Managers Certification Program (LMCP) for the Louisiana
State Department of Education, Bureau of Food and Nutrition
Services.  Methodologies included content validation, priority
validation, and correlation studies.  Results of this three phase
study indicated:  35 of the 60 FPCT test items (58%) were valid and
are currently included in the LMCP training unit; no significant
differences were found between mean scores for Louisiana School
Food Service Managers on the FPCT and the anticipated scores based
on the judgement of the trainers; and the correlation between the
FPCT and the safety and sanitation subscale of the Louisiana
Manager Certification Program examination for 113 subjects was
0.413.  This concurrent validity study showed that the FPCT will
have little value for the LMCP.


Frank-Spohrer, G.C., Adsen, M., Briggs, M., Roberts, C., &
Balakshin, M. (1992). Methods for administering, and the initial
data from, a statewide census of child nutrition program employees. 
School Food Service Research Review, 16, 107-113.

Staff of the Child Nutrition Program Management Center at
California State University , Long Beach, develop, implement and
manage several large projects concerning training of child
nutrition employees.  A census form was developed and pilot tested. 
The actual number of employees at different skill levels, their
food production skills, and the areas the employees viewed as
important for their professional development were organized into a
self-administered form with an optical scan answer sheet.  After
review by an expert panel, the census was divided into two major
parts:  one for the directors and one for the employees.  Eleven
directors completed Part I and 32 employees completed Part II.  In
addition to process evaluation, the priority training topics for
employees were identified.  Directors chose different topics
compared with choices of employees.  Sixty-four percent of
directors stated they did not provide regular training for general
and technical assistants, whereas 73% stated they did provide
regular training for managers.  A census can provide a complete
enumeration of a large group on specific topics.  In this census,
a demographic profile and the current training needs of child
nutrition employees were assessed.  The pilot test allowed a formal
review of the census form and development of a feasible, final form
for statewide distribution.


Sneed, J. (1992).  Continuing education needs of school food
service supervisors.  School Food Service Research Review, 16, 23-
28.

The study determined perceived importance and continuing education
needs for 55 job-related areas for school food service supervisors,
compared importance and continuing education needs ratings with
those of supervisors/managers in other types of food service
operations, and determined preferred methods of continuing
education program delivery.  A questionnaire was mailed to school
food service supervisors of the city/county school districts in
Tennessee, to members of the Tennessee chapter of the American
Society of Hospital Food Service Administrators, members of the
management practice group of the Tennessee Dietetic Association,
and a random sample of half of the members of the Tennessee
Restaurant Association.  For school food service supervisors, more
than 90% rated state/federal regulations, personnel management,
food production and delivery, equipment, financial management, menu
planning, and management development as important or very important
areas for their jobs.  Continuing education needs for school food
service supervisors were highest for personnel management followed
by microcomputer applications, employee orientation and training,
and menu planning.  There were some differences in ratings for both
importance and continuing education needs based on the food service
setting.  Because of their high rated importance and high need for
continuing education, personnel management, employee orientation
and training, and menu planning are important areas for continuing
education programs.  Based on responses to preferences for
continuing education delivery, programs presented at a location
convenient to the school food service supervisors' job likely will
be most successful, and educational programs presented on videotape
may be an efficient, cost-effective delivery method.


Rohter, F.D., Schmidt, M.A., Frazee, C., Gergley, G.R., & Norris,
S.M. (1992). Development of a wellness/nutrition education program
for Florida school food service workers.  School Food Service
Research Review, 16, 43-46.

Florida school food service employees (488) participated in a
three-phased wellness program.  The awareness phase consisted of
six regional workshops that featured degenerative disease, lower
back disorders, and nutrition awareness presentations; the
participants evaluated each presentation between "excellent" and
"very good."  The assessment phase consisted of four physiologic
measurements that showed:  30% of the participants had total
cholesterol/high density lipoprotein (TC/HDL) ratios below 13% risk
of coronary artery disease (CAD), 42% were between 13 and 25% risk,
25% were between 26 and 50% risk, and 3% were between 51 and 75%
risk; 3% of the participants were at a low body fat percentage risk
of CAD, 10% were average risk, 29% were high risk, and 58% were
very high risk; 82% of the participants had normal systolic blood
pressure, 17% were borderline hypertensive, and 1% were
hypertensive; and 48% of the participants had normal diastolic
blood pressure, 36% were high normal, 10% were mild hypertensive,
and 6% were moderate hypertensive.  The intervention phase showed
that the participants evaluated their intervention experiences (1-
mile walk, lowfat/high-energy lunch, stretching sessions,
physiologic assessments, and wellness leadership manuals) between
"excellent" and "very good."


DeMicco, F.J., & Parks, S.C. (1991).  Attitudes of school food
service personnel and business managers toward professional
development.  School Food Service Research Review, 15, 28-31.

The objective of this study was to determine the attitudes of
school business managers and school food service directors,
managers and assistants toward a certification/professional
development program.  A survey research methodology was used for
data collection.  Overall, results indicate a strong interest in
certification/professional development among school food service
employees and business managers.  Funds appear to be a determining
factor.  Benefits of certification, as described by the
respondents, include increased job status, career advancement and
salary increases.  Business managers indicate a preference for
hiring certified, rather than noncertified, employees.  Business
managers also appeared supportive of certification, which makes
them a key ally that should be garnered.  The attitudes of school
food service directors, managers, and assistants and school
business managers regarding certification/professional development
are the focus of this paper.


Canter, D.D. (1988).  Identification of competencies of school food
service workers in Kansas as the basis for a statewide educational
plan.  School Food Service Research Review, 12, 78-83.

In recent years there has been increased emphasis on education and
training of school food service personnel.  One of the steps in the
development of a coordinated training effort is identification of
desired end point competencies.  The Kansas School Food Service
Association (KSFSA) funded a study of competencies of Kansas school
food service workers in four job categories:  general assistant,
manager, supervisor, and director.  A panel of experts identified
competencies needed for success in the four job categories.  A
questionnaire composed of 80 statements from 14 competency areas
was mailed to 1,175 Kansas school food service employees. 
Demographic data also were solicited.  Response was received from
780, or 66.4%, of the employees.  Findings indicated that directors
and managers held the broadest view of their positions as indicated
by selection of competencies considered part of their current
positions.  General assistants and supervisors appeared to have a
narrower view of their jobs.  Job title and whether or not the
respondent had participated in vocational classes appeared to have
a significant impact on how individuals viewed the relevance of
various competencies.  Training for general assistants must focus
on basic and professional skills, while training for management
personnel must focus on control, marketing, and personnel
development.


Ricci, M.K. (1988).  A comparison of a training course offered
during the school year versus the summer.  School Food Service
Research Review, 12, 75-77.

Since 1984, the Child Nutrition Program in Connecticut has offered
a 36-hour training course for school food service personnel.  The
course, "Quantity Food Production and Food Service Management," was
offered as a 12-week fall/spring course or as a two-week summer
course.  Pre- and post-test knowledge scores and evaluation data
were compared to determine which time frame showed the greatest
increase in knowledge, application of learning to the workplace,
and increase in professional image.  Training during the school
year proved more effective because participants had more time to
study, which improved their test scores.  They also had the
opportunity to practice what they were learning in their own school
kitchens, which increased the application of learning to the
workplace.  Membership and certification in ASFSA was greater by
participants in the school year training that helped improve their
professional image.  The data supports training for school food
service personnel during the school calendar year when knowledge
gained can be put to immediate use in the workplace.  


Devan, K.S., Gregoire, M.B., & Spears, M.C. (1988).  Evaluation of
a vegetable preparation training program:  Part II:  Assessment by
plate waste observation and student and sensory panel ratings. 
School Food Service Research Review, 12, 24-27.

A two-part research project was designed to evaluate the
effectiveness of an employee training program as a means of
improving quality of cooked vegetables in school food service. 
Specific objectives of Part II of the study were:  to assess the
influence of vegetable preparation training on the amount of
vegetable plate waste, to compare student ratings of cooked
vegetables before training to ratings after training, and to
determine if quality characteristics, as measured by a professional
sensory panel, are affected by training in proper vegetable
preparation techniques.  Acceptability of cooked broccoli flavor,
appearance, temperature, and serving size were evaluated by fifth
and sixth grade students; plate waste was assessed visually by
trained observers.  A professional sensory panel evaluated quality
characteristics of purity of green and firmness of broccoli.  Data
analysis focused on comparison of pre- and post-training data. 
Little significant change in student ratings for broccoli was noted
after the cook's training session.  Reduction in plate waste was
indicated in two of five schools following training, one of which
was significant.  Sensory ratings of broccoli indicated improvement
in purity of green and firmness in most schools; however,
improvement was not significant.


Rufael, A.G., Gregoire, M.B., & Spears, M.C. (1988).  Evaluation of
a vegetable preparation training program:  Part I:  Development of
training program and assessment of time-temperature data.  School
Food Service Research Review, 12, 20-23.

A two-part research project was designed to evaluate the
effectiveness of an employee training program as a means of
improving quality of cooked vegetables in school food service. 
Specific objectives of Part I of the study were:  to assess time-
temperature relationships and holding times of cooked vegetables at
five elementary schools, to conduct training programs on batch
cooking of vegetables, and to assess effectiveness of training on
temperatures and holding times of cooked vegetables.  Vegetable
preparation was observed four times in each of five schools both
pre- and post-training.  Time-temperatures were recorded at start
of cooking, end of cooking, start of service, and end of service. 
Holding time for a pan of vegetables was determined as the time
elapsed from end of production until time of service.  A training
program was developed that included a group inservice class, two
individualized on-site training sessions, and a follow-up session. 
Results of the study indicated that serving temperatures after
training increased in three of the schools.  A significant
improvement in holding time was observed.  Institution of a regular
training program with subsequent monitoring of cooks' performance
is recommended.


DeMicco, F.J. (1988).  Education, training, and development of the
older worker.  School Food Service Research Review, 12, 6-12.

Demographic trends will have a significant impact on the food
service labor force.  With fewer teenagers available, the
commercial sector (that is, fast food restaurants) is experiencing
acute labor shortages.  This trend will impact the institutional
sector (that is, school food services) as commercial and
institutional employers compete for a similar labor pool.  The
older worker will be a valuable resource in light of a shrinking
labor pool and increased competition.  Stereotypes regarding the
training, education, and development of older workers are
pervasive.  To achieve financial success in their food service
operations, employee training, education, and development programs
are necessary.  Therefore, managers will have to overcome
stereotype barriers and develop effective training and educational
programs for older employees.  This paper examines the age related
stereotypes regarding education, training, and development of the
older worker. 
                       ENERGY CONSUMPTION
    
     
Hsieh, J.H., Matthews, M.E., & Hartel, R.W. (1990).  Estimation of
heat processing times of turkey rolls in the convection oven. 
School Food Service Research Review, 14, 90-93.

Heat processing time of turkey rolls at three oven temperatures and
three oven load sizes was investigated.  Warm-up time of the
convection oven at different oven temperature settings and oven
load sizes also was studied.  Heating times decreased as the oven
temperature increased for the convection oven studied in this work. 
In addition, an oven load size of two turkey rolls required less
time to heat than a load size of either four or six turkey rolls. 
The similarity in heating times for load sizes of four and six
turkey rolls is most likely attributable to temperature and air
velocity variations in the oven, which result in similar heat
transfer conditions at the slowest heating spot in the oven. 
Regression analysis indicated that:  (a) heat processing times were
highly correlated (R2 = 99.5%) with oven temperature settings and
oven load sizes, (b) a linear relationship (R2 = 98%) existed
between the warm-up time and the temperature setting of the oven
when the oven was operated empty and (c) a quadratic relationship
(R2 = 90%) existed between the warm-up time and the oven load sizes
for three oven temperature settings.  Methods reported in this
study to estimate heat processing times of turkey rolls and warm-up
times of the convection oven at different operating conditions can
be applied in a specific school food service operation to develop
equations for that operation and could be used by managers to
improve production planning.


Tutt, M., McProud, L., Belo, P., Tseng, R., Ferlin, B., & Neill, C.
(1989).  Comparison of energy consumption of fully and partially
loaded institutional forced-air convection ovens:  Preheated and
non-preheated.  School Food Service Research Review, 13, 146-149.

The purpose of this study was to compare energy consumption of
fully (sixteen pans) and partially (eight pans) loaded
institutional forced-air convection ovens (preheated and non-
preheated) when used to thermally process beef loaves.  Two
convection ovens were used in the study:  a 110,000 BTU oven
located in a university location, and a 100,000 BTU oven at a
school district location.  Three trials were conducted at each
location comparing full load to partial load using two oven
treatments, preheated and non-preheated.  A potentiometer was used
to measure internal temperature of the beef loaves.  Energy
consumption was measured using a gas meter.  On a per serving
basis, energy savings for the non-preheated fully loaded oven (452
BTU) were 45% (p<0.001) when compared to the partially loaded oven
(833 BTU) located at the university site, and 38% (p<0.05) for the
school district site (425 BTU; 691 BTU).  An energy savings of 16%
resulted from using the preheated oven fully loaded (694 BTU per
serving) compared to the partially loaded oven (833 BTU per
serving) at the university location and 28% at the school district
location (474 BTU; 663 BTU), p<0.05.  Use of a fully loaded
convection oven resulted in higher energy savings per serving than
the partially loaded oven.  The fully loaded, non-preheated oven
consumed the least amount of energy per serving.                 
                FOOD PRODUCTION AND FACILITIES
     
     
Miller, J.J., McCahon, C.S., & Miller, J.L. (1991).  Forecasting
production demand in school food service.  School Food Service
Research Review, 15, 117-121.

Among the many challenges facing school food service managers, two
are particularly persistent.  First, large numbers of students must
be served in a very short period of time.  Second, food production
costs must be carefully controlled to stay within budget.  Improved
forecasting techniques can help school food service managers meet
both of these challenges.  Simple mathematical forecasting models
have been tested and found to be effective in hospital and college
and university food service environments.  Some of the same models
can be effective in the school food service environment as well. 
The purpose of this article is to identify and describe two simple
mathematical forecasting models that can be applied to school food
service operations.  School food service managers should find both
models understandable and, with a little training, easy to
implement.  Once implemented, a basic mathematical forecasting
model can be modified to enhance forecast accuracy for a particular
school food service facility.


Lawless, S.T., Gregoire, M.B., Canter, D.D., & Setser, C.S. (1991). 
Comparison of cakes produced from computer-generated recipes. 
School Food Service Research Review, 15, 23-27.

Five computer-adjusted German chocolate cake recipes were compared
for differences in ingredient quantities, volume measures and
sensory evaluations.  Food service directors adjusted a home-sized
recipe to 60 and 540 servings using their computer program,
adjusting in both weights and measures if their program had that
capability.  Trained bakery personnel prepared cakes for 60
servings using the computer-adjusted recipes.  Cakes then were
evaluated by a trained sensory panel for crust color evenness, cell
uniformity, cell size, density and moistness of crumb.  Cake
volumes also were determined.  Adjusted ingredient quantities
differed among recipes.  Significant differences were found between
cakes prepared from these recipes for volume measurements and
sensory ratings for crust color evenness and moistness of crumb. 
Results of this study suggest that procedures used by computer
software programs for adjusting recipes may be important when
selecting computer recipe software, because differences in
adjustment procedures appear to impact on quality of cakes prepared
from computer-adjusted recipes.  School food service managers using
computers to adjust recipes are encouraged to test product quality
and modify ingredient quantities as needed.


Richardson, M.E., Smith, E.R., & Boudreaux, L.J. (1990).  School
food service supervisor's involvement in layout and design of
facilities.  School Food Service Research Review, 14, 118-123.

A study was conducted to assess factors that influence the layout
and design of a school food service facility, determine the role of
the school food service supervisor (SFSS) in the layout and design
of a school food service facility in Mississippi and investigate
how Mississippi SFSSs perceived their knowledge in layout and
design.  A questionnaire was designed and mailed to 151 SFSSs in
Mississippi. A response rate of 89% was attained.  Menu and type of
service, enrollment capacity of school, budget, and number of meals
served were factors that most often influenced layout and design. 
The mean knowledge scores in 10 aspects of renovation or
construction were less than 2.5, indicating that the SFSSs had
little knowledge of these aspects.  Sixty-seven respondents (50.4%)
had participated in renovations or new construction.  Supervisors
who had participated indicated that they were very involved in
aspects of renovation or construction; however, the majority had
experienced several problems after the project was completed.  Food
service equipment representatives, consultants and staff members of
the state child nutrition programs were perceived as having much
knowledge; school principals and superintendents of education were
perceived as having little knowledge of layout and design of a SFS
facility.


Zabik, M.E. (1990).  Effect of roasting, hot-holding or microwave
heating on polychlorinated byphenyl levels in turkey.  School Food
Service Research Review, 14, 98-102.

This research determined the effects of a simulated commercial food
service operation on the potential reduction of polychlorinated
biphenyl (PCBs) from light meat of turkey rolls.  Turkeys that were
fed rations spiked with low levels of PCBs were slaughtered, and
the breast and thigh muscles were used to produce turkey rolls. 
These rolls were roasted at 105, 135, or 1650 C after which half
were sliced and slices were held hot for up to 120 minutes.  The
remaining rolls were chilled overnight, heated at 1050 C and then
held hot.  Three-ounce portions from all rolls were frozen and then
heated in the microwave at either half or full power.  Roasting
reduced the PCBs by an average of >60%.  There were no significant
differences in PCB residue levels due to oven temperature,
chilling, hot-holding or heating by microwave.  Thus, the choice of
oven-roasting temperature and whether or not to hold the turkey on
a steam table or freeze and heat by microwave should be based on
sensory, nutritional, and microbial quality considerations.


Mann, N.L. (1989).  Safety management in food service. School Food
Service Research Review, 13, 157-160.

Historically, employees were viewed as a disposable commodity in
the workplace.  However, state and federal legislation placing full
responsibility for employee safety on the employer has caused
employers to view safety management from a different perspective. 
Loss control takes a more humanistic approach when the employer
attempts to solve safety problems by examining and modifying human
factors.  Unsafe acts of persons and unsafe conditions in the
workplace lead to accidents and injuries, most of which can be
prevented.  Equipment guards, safety meetings and posters, and
first aid training-all traditional methods of safety management-
were found to be insufficient in accident reduction.  Employers
found improved safety, as noted by fewer accidents and injuries,
when individualized training for specific jobs was implemented.  In
studying workplace accidents and injuries, human error usually
surfaces as the culprit, stemming from employee stress and a lack
of safety awareness.  Management now seeks to reduce human error by
providing stress management classes for employees and utilizing
more physical abilities testing to assure that workers are capable
of carrying out assigned jobs.  Accident prevention also
incorporates a managerial commitment to correcting safety hazards,
establishing safety standards, maintaining a continuous training
program, including technicians on safety committees, and offering
incentives for reducing accidents.


Ollinger-Snyder, P., Matthews, M.E., & Maxcy, R.B. (1987). 
Microbiological quality of raw and cooked turkey roasts under
conditions simulating school food service.  School Food Service
Research Review, 11, 36-39.

Microbiological quality of turkey roasts was evaluated at three
critical points in processing: before cooking, after cooking, and
after hot holding.  Roasts were examined raw and then cooked to 77o
C in a convection oven at 105, 135, or 165o C.  The finished
product was sliced and examined or held at 67o C in a hot-holding
cabinet operating at 67 to 82o C.  Evaluations were made after the
internal temperature of slices reached 67o C.  Thereafter, slices
were held for 60 or 120 minutes.  Total plate counts and coliform
counts were obtained from the roasts at each of the three critical
control points in food product flow.  Total plate counts for the
product raw, cooked, or held hot were within generally acceptable
limits, as judged by sensory evaluation, because approximately 50
million organisms per gram of food are required before sensory
spoilage occurs.  Coliforms, common indicator organisms of public
health significance were found in the raw product.  However, no
coliforms were found when roasts were cooked to an internal
temperature of 77o C.  Any product subsequently held hot should be
held for short periods of time at temperaturesò60o C in accordance
with federal recommendations and to maintain sensory quality of the
product.  The importance of these critical control points in
training food service workers in proper handling procedures cannot
be overemphasized.


DiGiorgio, A.M., & Setser, C.S. (1987). Sensory and nutritional
quality of thermally processed turkey rolls.  School Food Service
Research Review, 11, 31-35.

Effects of roasting methods and hot holding on eating quality and
thiamin content of boneless turkey rolls were investigated.  Three
oven temperatures, 105, 135, and 165o C, (221, 275, and 329o F) and
two preparation procedures, chilling with reheating versus no
chilling, were used to prepare and serve boneless turkey rolls held
for 0, 60, and 120 minutes.  Treatment combinations of a split plot
experimental design were randomized for each of the three
replications.  A convection oven was used for roasting to 80o C
(176o F) internal temperature, reheating at 105o C to 66o C (221o F
to 151o F), and hot holding to maintain 66o C.  Treatment, which
included roasting temperature, and 24-hour chilling, significantly
influenced juiciness scores of turkey roll light muscle.  Turkey
rolls roasted at 105o C were juicier (pó0.05) than those roasted at
135o and 165o C and chilled.  Sensory attributes of aroma and
juiciness, along with chew count and percentage moisture, were
affected significantly by the length of the holding period.  Chew
counts of samples progressively increased as the meat was held for
longer periods of time; whereas juiciness and moisture content both
decreased significantly from one holding period to the next. 
Turkey slices held for 120 minutes had stronger roasted aroma
(pó0.05) than those held for 0 and 60 minutes.  Thiamin content
(mg/100g) was higher (pó0.05) for turkey rolls that were roasted at
105o C and served the same day than for all other treatment
combinations studied; percentage moisture for those roasts was
higher than for roasts cooked at each of the two highest oven
temperatures, chilled overnight, and reheated.


Brown, N.E., Moniz, J.C., Mohd-Jan, A., & Kurian, S. (1987). 
Effects of hot holding on spaghetti and meat sauce.  School Food
Service Research Review, 11, 20-24.

The effects of hot holding on firmness of two kinds of spaghetti
and on ascorbic acid and thiamin retention in spaghetti and meat
sauce were studied.  Extra long 100 percent No. 1 durum semolina
spaghetti and USDA-donated spaghetti were used.  The spaghetti and
meat sauce were prepared separately and combined.  In one
experiment, time was used as the criterion of spaghetti doneness
and in two experiments a visual assessment was applied.  Both kinds
of spaghetti lost 26 to 29 percent of firmness during the first 0.5
hour of hot holding.  Additional losses occurred at a decreasing
rate.  Firmness values immediately after cooking, however, were
much lower for USDA-donated spaghetti.  Ascorbic acid retention was
57% after 1.5 hours of hot holding at 174o F/79o C and 73% after
3.75 hours at 162o F/72o C.  Thiamin retention was 78% under both
conditions.  Careful production scheduling is necessary to minimize
hot holding and subsequent loss of nutritional and other quality
characteristics, such as firmness, in spaghetti and meat sauce.


Hsieh, J.H., & Matthews, M.E. (1986).  Distribution of temperatures
in convection ovens. School Food Service Research Review, 10, 116-
122.

The temperature distribution of hot air flow within a forced-air
convection oven cavity was identified.  Inside oven temperatures at
three rack positions, top, middle, and bottom, were monitored at a
dial setting of 221o F, 235o F and 285o F, respectively.  The
temperature distributions, 3/4 inch above or below the pans and
racks, also were studied.  Inside oven temperatures were 10 to 13o
F below the outside temperature dial setting.  Temperature
distribution in the oven cavity was not uniform.  Hot and cold
spots existed in the front part of both top and bottom shelves. 
Temperatures were more even on the middle shelf and in the rear
part of the oven cavity.  As the number of pans varied, the
temperature distribution in the oven cavity changed.  Some
recommendations regarding use of convection ovens in actual food
service operations were stated.


Rieley, D.M., Gregoire, M.B., & Setser, C.S. (1986).  Evaluation of
three school food service systems.  School Food Service Research
Review, 10, 109-115.

This research was designed to evaluate the effect of the type of
school food service system on the quality and acceptability of
selected frozen, commercially prepared food items: chicken nuggets,
potatoes, and broccoli.  The three systems evaluated were
conventional, satellite, and satellite with a finishing kitchen. 
Sixth grade students evaluated the appearance, flavor, temperature,
and serving size of each of the three food items.  A professional
sensory panel evaluated the quality characteristics of the food
items.  Time-temperature relationships were measured and
temperatures were taken at intervals from the end of production to
the end of service.  Students rated flavor and appearance of the
food items significantly higher for the conventional system than
for the other two systems.  Sensory panel ratings showed no
significant difference between the three systems.  For all food
items, holding times were longest for the satellite system.  In
most cases, the mean temperatures at the beginning of service were
at or below 60o C for the satellite and satellite with finishing
kitchen systems.  Large deviations of time-temperature data and
sensory ratings were found within and between schools.  Because the
variability may have resulted from the use of improper preparation
techniques, training of employees may be indicated.


Frye, L.L., McProud, L.M., Smith, E., Trant, A.S., & Belo, P.S.
(1986).  Sensory quality and energy used in entree processing in
convection ovens.  School Food Service Research Review, 10, 93-97.

The purpose of this study was to determine the acceptance of beef
loaves thermally processed in a non-preheated forced-air convection
oven, along with the energy required and the yield obtained.  No
significant difference (p<0.05) was found in overall acceptability
between the samples thermally processed in a preheated and a non-
preheated oven.  Significantly less (p<0.05) energy was consumed
while thermally processing beef loaves in a non-preheated oven;
energy savings were 13.2%.  The beef loaves did not differ
significantly in total weight loss, nor in any of the sensory
attributes measured, including overall acceptability.  A
significant difference (p<0.001) was found between beef loaves
thermally processed in a preheated and non-preheated convection
oven using the triangle test for difference, although no
significant preference for either sample was noted.  Thus,
considerable energy savings can be achieved without significant
changes in beef loaf quality by not preheating forced-air
convection ovens.  
                           GENERAL
     
                   
Giampaoli, J., Smith, E., Dutcher, J.K., Lins, A., Cervantes, J.,
& Belo, P. (1992).  Evaluation of the reimbursable meal served to
students with profoundly disabling conditions. Journal of
Foodservice Systems, 7, 55-65.

The purposes of this study were to evaluate whether lunch meals
served at a special education school met the minimum requirements
of the National School Lunch Program; whether menu items required
texture modification; and what percentage of menu items offered in
the lunch meal were served to children with profound disabilities. 
Twenty-four children ages 5-18 were the subjects.  Random lunch
samples were collected for 20 school days.  The meals met the
minimum requirements of the NSLP in all food groups for ages 5-8. 
However for all other age groups, the meat group was met 75% of the
time and 50% of the time for the fruit/vegetable group.  Texture
modifications were required for the meat and bread group 100% of
the time and for the fruit/vegetable group 90% of the time. 
Texture modifications were accomplished through bulk blending
instead of blending each food item separately.  Milk was never
offered to children ages 3-14 due to mucous production and
respiratory problems.  Other foods were omitted as possible choking
hazards.  Serving sizes and variety of items was inconsistent for
the profoundly disabled especially where texture was a problem. 
Physicians need to be consulted for diet prescriptions to permit
substitutions of appropriate foods where needed, and communication
among food service personnel, classroom staff, parents, and
physicians was recommended.


White, G., Sneed, J. & Martin, J. (1992).  School food service in
the year 2000 and beyond.  School Food Service Research Review,
16(2), 101-106.

This consensus paper was developed as a result of a conference,
"Trends:  School Food Service in the Year 2000 and Beyond."  Based
on presentations and group discussion, seven forces that will
affect school food service were identified:  restructuring of
education; nutrition, health, and learning ability; demographic
changes; government; resources and technology; competitive
marketing; and environmental concerns.  For each force, proposed
characteristics, effects, and directions were identified.  In
addition, a statement of the vision for Child Nutrition Programs
was developed.


Lytle, L.A., Kelder, S.H., & Snyder, M.P. (1992).  A review of
school food service research.  School Food Service Research Review,
17, 7-14.

The purpose of this article is to describe and summarize the
research conducted to date on school food service nutrition
interventions.  With the provision of 27 million lunches and 3
million breakfasts daily, school food service can have a
significant impact on achieving national goals to reduce fat and
sodium in children's diets.  A literature review identified eight
articles published since 1980 that included some outcome-based
evaluation.  Most of the research focused on attempts to reduce the
total fat, saturated fat, cholesterol, or sodium in foods served in
school cafeterias.  Most studies showed a trend toward being able
to reduce fat and sodium without incurring resistance from students
or prohibitive cost increases; however, the degree of reduction
achieved often failed to meet study goals.  Results from the
majority of the studies are circumspect due to the lack of
scientific rigor in the research design or measures used.  We
conclude that future studies must employ more rigorous study
designs and should focus on how to make changes to meet national
nutritional goals, how to keep calories adequate while reducing fat
levels, and how the vitamin and mineral composition of meals is
influenced by the changes.


Splett, P.L., & Story, M. (1991).  Child nutrition:  Objectives for
the decade.  Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 91, 665-
668.

The purpose of this article was to outline priority nutrition
concerns for children for the 1990's.  Healthy People 2000: 
National Health Promotion and Disease Prevention Objectives were
listed as a source of specific objectives for nutrition initiatives
for children.  The nutrition-related health problems that imperil
children include:  hunger, growth retardation, iron-deficiency
anemia, dental disease, and obesity.  Societal changes, such as
changes in family structure, also are putting children at higher
risk of living in poverty conditions and working mothers having to
put children in daycare.  Therefore more meals may be based on
little income or convenience and may be imbalanced in nutrients. 
Strategies should be carefully planned to enable health-promoting
and risk-reducing dietary practices in all settings where children
spend their days.  Dietitians are needed who can meet the challenge
of designing and implementing innovative approaches; who are
flexible and can cross professional boundaries; who can leave their
offices to work with parents, daycare providers, and a host of
others who care about and work with children on a regular basis.


Pond-Smith, D., Jennings, G., & Lafif, L.A. (1990).  Alternative
revenue sources for school foodservice:  A survey of school food
and nutrition services.  Journal of the American Dietetic
Association, 90, 1103-1104.

The objective of this article was to report the results of a survey
of school food and nutrition services directors to determine the
revenue sources used to increase foodservice funds.  A
questionnaire was developed and mailed to the 800 members of the
School Nutrition Services dietetic practice group.  Two hundred
thirty-four questionnaires were returned and frequency
distributions were tabulated.  Eighty-one percent of respondents
were participating in supplementary revenue projects such as
catering and home-delivery meals.  Eighty percent indicated their
school district processed government agricultural commodities. 
Other resources came from state funding.  Only 23% of the school
districts had no financial support other than income from meals
served.


Brown, N.E., & Hanna, E.N. (1988).  Evaluation of learning about
management principles.  School Food Service Research Review, 12,
84-88.

The effects of training on knowledge and ability to apply
management principles to hypothetical situations by 76 participants
in a school food service management short course were evaluated
using a pretest and posttest.  The mean score for the total group
showed a significant increase from pretest to posttest.  There was
a significant positive correlation between pretest scores and
supervisory responsibility and years of education; whereas, there
was a significant negative correlation between pretest scores and
years employed in school food service and years employed in present
position.  However, none of the correlation coefficients indicated
strong linear associations between the two measures.  Gain scores
correlated with none of the characteristics of participants.  A
subgroup of 25 managers also responded to the same instrument
administered as a retest eight months after training.  For the
subgroup of managers, there was an increase in mean score with each
administration of the test, but only the mean gain from pretest to
retest was significant.  Recommendations were made for evaluating
the content and teaching of the short course based on the findings.


Frank, G.C., Vaden, A., & Martin, J. (1987).  School health
promotion:  Child nutrition programs.  Journal of School Health,
57, 451-460.

This article describes the history of the school nutrition program
and how it has adapted to meet the current needs of students. 
Since 1946, the school lunch program has been integral to the
health of school children.  Menus continuously have become more
nutritious as the fat, salt, and sugar content has been lowered. 
The Nutrition Education Training Program, established in 1977,
provided impetus for nutrition education in schools, which has been
integrated into school health programs.  These authors present
goals and directions for Child Nutrition Programs.


Boudreaux, L.J. (1986).  Lessons from excellent companies: 
Implications for school food service organizations.  School Food
Service Research Review, 10, 78-81.

People everywhere want to know what gives a company an edge to
success.  In this paper the books, In Search of Excellence, The
Winning Streak, and A Passion for Excellence, are reviewed
highlighting the common traits and characteristics that are found
in successful companies in the United States and Great Britain.  To
attain excellence in school food service, management personnel can
learn from these successful companies.  Some managerial practices
that can be applied to school food service operations to help them
to attain excellence include:  (1) recognize that the customer is
the prime objective, (2) promote improved managerial productivity
by being in touch with the employees and customers, (3) provide
training that is necessary to improve quality, (4) seek to obtain
loyalty and commitment from all levels of employees by providing
opportunities for involvement, (5) state its fundamental objective
in clear understandable terms, (6) reduce unnecessary paperwork and
delegate tasks to support personnel whenever possible, (7) listen
to students, advisory groups, parents, and teachers in determining
ways to satisfy needs and desires of the customer, (8) create an
environment for all workers to innovate and make contributions, and
(9) live its quality message through the managers at all levels. 
The role of school food service in the attainment of the nations's
health objective can be enhanced by the emergence of more
"excellent school food service operations."


Matthews, M.E., Bedford, M.R., & Hiemstra, S. (1986).  Report on
school food service research needs--1985.  School Food Service
Research Review, 10, 35-39.

The idea for a survey of research needs for school food service was
discussed by members of the College Personnel Section, the Advisory
Board of the School Food Service Research Review, and the Executive
Board at the combined meeting of all ASFSA Committees in Denver in
September, 1983.  The ad hoc committee then was appointed in 1984
to develop the survey instrument, collect data, and report the
findings to the Executive Board by July, 1985.  Respondents to the
survey were asked to review a list of 20 different research needs
and indicate if they thought the item "did not need study", or were
"undecided".  Respondents also were asked to select three research
needs from the 20 that they believed had the highest priority for
study.  The seven most critical research needs were in five areas: 
use of computers, trends affecting school food service,
productivity and use of resources, program participation and school
food service, and nutrition education programs.  Over 80% of the
respondents indicated further research was needed in developing
computer systems with the widest application to school food service
and in identifying trends and variables affecting future needs in
school food service programs.


Bartley, K.C., & Wellman, N.S. (1986).  School lunch:  A comparison
of its development in the United States and England.  School Food
Service Research Review, 10, 6-9.

In the United States, impetus for the development of school food
service resulted from a dual purpose:  concern for child nutrition
and utilization of surplus agricultural products.  In England, a
similar program developed through reform efforts in the social and
educational systems.  Today, many parallels exist in the two
systems and current trends are quite similar.  Today's student
consumers are being considered more and are expecting more
responsibility for nutritional choices by individuals themselves in
programs in both countries.
     
                             NUTRITION
                                   

Barr, S.I. (1994).  Associations of social and demographic
variables with calcium intakes of high school students.  Journal of
the American Dietetic Association, 94, 260-269.

The purpose of this study was to assess the typical calcium intake
of urban high school students and to determine the association of
social and demographic variables with calcium intake.  A food
frequency questionnaire was distributed to one class per grade
level in six high schools in  a large metropolitan area.  Usable
questionnaires were completed by 785 students.  The estimated mean
calcium intake for males was 1,146ñ41 mg/day compared with 815ñ26
mg/day for females.  The largest percentage (59%) of calcium was
obtained from drinking milk.  Predictors of calcium intake included
gender; ethnicity; taste enjoyment of dairy products; number of
meals and snacks per day; age; behavioral modeling of milk
consumption, perceptions of others' opinions, recommendations, and
use of milk; and soft drink consumption.  The total variance in
calcium intake accounted for by these variables was 30.4%, thus,
other variables impact calcium consumption.  Except for age, these
variables were positively related to calcium intake.


Nicklas, T.A., Myers, L., & Berenson, G.S. (1994).  Impact of
ready-to-eat cereal consumption on total dietary intake of
children:  The Bogalusa Heart Study.  Journal of the American
Dietetic Association, 94, 316-318.

The purpose of this research study was to determine the nutrient
impact of ready-to-eat (RTE) cereals on the daily total nutrient
intake of children.  The sample for the study was 568 10-year old
children who completed a 24-hour dietary recall interview. 
Nutrient consumption was compared for children who ate RTE cereals
and those who did not.  There was no difference in the sucrose
intake for those two groups of children.  For girls, the saturated
fat intake was higher for those consuming RTE cereals, the opposite
was true for boys.  Total nutrient consumption was higher for
children who consumed RTE cereals.


Baranowski, T., Domel, S., Gould, R., Baranowski, J., Leonard, S.,
Treiber, F., & Mullis, R. (1993).  Increasing fruit and vegetable
consumption among 4th and 5th grade students:  Results from focus
groups using reciprocal determinism.  Journal of Nutrition
Education, 25, 114-120.

This article investigated the Year 2000 Goals for the United States
that identified five servings per day of fruits and vegetables
(F&V) or nearly double the current level for children.  Focus
groups were conducted with fourth and fifth grade students,
parents, teachers, and food service workers.  The students were bi-
ethnic, with slightly more than half being African-Americans, and
were from predominantly lower socioeconomic backgrounds. 
Discussion questions focused on behavior or frequency and type of
F&V consumption, availability of F&V in the child's environment
(home and/or institutions), functional understanding of the four
food groups, and children's ideas on how to influence F&V
consumption.  Increasing F&V consumption was determined to be a
problem of increasing F&V availability, enhancing the preference
for vegetables, and providing skills the students can implement to
increase availability in their environments as well as F&V
preparation.


Daubenmire, S.W., Zabik, M.E., & Setser, C.S. (1993).  Development
of lowfat, cholesterol-free, high-fiber muffins.  Part 1:  Fiber
source and particle size effects on quality characteristics. 
School Food Service Research Review, 17, 15-20.

Three cereal brans (oat, rice, and wheat) and four leguminous brans
(black-eyed pea, navy, pinto, and soybean) were selected for
incorporation into a cholesterol-free, low-salt muffin.  Each bran
was ground to two particle sizes:  fine (<150 microns) and coarse
(425-850 microns).  Brans were substituted for 65% of whole wheat
flour, and water content in each muffin formula was adjusted to
meet requirements of each bran based upon its hydration capacity. 
The control muffin was made from whole wheat and all-purpose flours
(1:1), leavening, spices, nonfat dry milk, egg substitute, honey,
vegetable oil, and water.  Physical measurements indicated that
batter specific gravity and moisture, volume, symmetry, color,
tenderness, and compressibility of muffins were significantly
changed by bran type.  Muffins made with cereal brans had equal or
higher volume than the control muffin, but oat and rice brans
produced muffins that were more peaked.  Muffins with either fine
or coarse brans resulted in tender, less compact products.  Soy and
navy brans produced muffins with similar lightness and yellowness
but less redness than the control.  Black-eyed pea and pinto brans
produced darker muffins that were less red and yellow than the
control muffin.  Reducing particle size increased viscosity and
decreased muffin moistness.


MacLaurin, T., Setser, C.S., & Zabik, M.E. (1993).  Development of
lowfat, cholesterol-free, high-fiber muffins.  Part 2:  Sensory
characteristics with selected fiber sources.  School Food Service
Research Review, 17, 21-29 .

School food service directors are challenged to plan and produce
foods high in nutritional value and eating quality.  This study
assessed selected sensory and physical characteristics of muffins
containing four types of fibers (oat, navy bean, pinto bean, and
soybean) and two particle sizes (<150 and 425-850 microns) of the
oat fiber.  Muffins were prepared using formulation developed
independently at two locations with and without additional
ingredients to improve flavor.  The control was a honey wheat
muffin currently used in the Kansas State University dining
services.  The control muffin and some oat formulations had higher
volumes than other high-fiber muffins.  The proportion of soluble
dietary fiber to total dietary fiber was highest for muffins with
oat bran (25%).  Sensory assessments indicated that all muffins
with coarse oat fiber or soybean hulls or with pinto bean hulls
plus carrots and raisins potentially were similar to the control
muffin for many attributes.  Muffins selected from descriptive
sensory studies were evaluated for acceptability by university
students, and more healthful oat bran muffin developed in these
studies was like equally as well as the currently offered honey
wheat muffins.


Nicklas, T.A., Bao, W., & Berenson, G.S. (1993).  Nutrient
contribution of the breakfast meal classified by source in 10-year-
old children:  Home versus school.  School Food Service Research
Review, 17, 125-131.

Nutrient contribution of breakfast at home compared to school was
examined in 393 10-year-old children (62% white; 49% girls).  More
whites (64%) and girls (55%) ate home breakfast, while more blacks
(74%) and boys (57%) ate school breakfast.   Breakfast was analyzed
from 24-hour recalls for nutrient composition, commonly consumed
breakfast foods, and percent contribution to total nutrient intake. 
Significant differences between home and school breakfast were
noted for nutrient composition and impact on total nutrient intake,
particularly for energy (kcal), protein, fat, carbohydrate (CHO),
and sodium (Na+).  Differences in protein and CHO were due to a
higher amount of mixed protein, lactose, and fructose consumed in
school breakfast.  Home breakfast provided more animal protein and
sucrose.  School compared to home breakfast contributed a
significantly higher percentage of total nutrient intake for energy
(26%; 19%), protein (30%; 18%), CHO (30%; 20%), and Na+ (27%; 18%),
with a larger percent of the total sucrose coming from home
breakfast.  Differences may be attributed to the breakfast foods
commonly consumed at home (grits, pancakes, oatmeal; cereals; ham,
bologna; dessert items; soft drinks; and added sugar, salt, and
fats) compared to those foods consumed at school (breads; dairy;
bacon, sausage; and fruits).  These findings have implications for
development of health promotion for school children.


Nicklas, T.A., Bao, W., Webber, L.S., & Berenson, G.S. (1993). 
Breakfast consumption affects adequacy of total daily intake in
children.  The Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 93,
886-891.

The purpose of this study was to compare the nutrient intake for
children who did not eat breakfast with those who ate at home or
school and its relationship to total daily intake and dietary
adequacy.  Dietary interviews (24-hour recalls) were conducted with
467, ten year-old children in two cross-sectional surveys. 
Breakfast consumption significantly influenced total nutrient
intake.  The mean daily energy intake for children who consumed
breakfast at school was 2,326 kcal compared to 1,821 kcal for
children who did not eat breakfast and 2,098 kcal for those eating
breakfast at home.  A similar pattern was noted for macronutrient
contribution.  Children who ate no breakfast did not make up
dietary differences at other meals.  A higher percentage of
children who ate breakfast met 2/3 of the Recommended Dietary
Allowances for vitamins and minerals than did children who did not
eat breakfast.  This study concludes that breakfast is necessary to
ensure nutritional adequacy of diets for school-age children.


Wolfe, W.S., & Campbell, C.C. (1993).  Food pattern, diet quality,
and related characteristics of schoolchildren in New York State. 
Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 93, 1280-1284.

The purpose of this research was to examine the food patterns and
diet quality of elementary school children in New York state
(outside of New York City) and to determine sociodemographic
characteristics correlated with diet quality.  A non-quantitative
24 hour recall was administered by a registered dietitian or
nutritionist to 1,797 second and fifth grade students in 51
randomly selected schools.  A brief questionnaire to determine
socioeconomic status also was completed by parents.  Children who
ate school lunch ate significantly more dairy foods, fruits and
vegetables, and fewer snack foods than those who brought food from
home.  Boys had lower food group pattern scores than girls;
children of lower socioeconomic status had less diverse diets but
ate less snack foods than those of high socioeconomic status. 
Children with single parents were more likely to skip breakfast and
eat fewer vegetables, and children with mothers working outside of
the home had less diverse diets than those with mothers at home. 
Nutrition education is needed for children, teachers, caregivers,
and parents.  Targeted messages based on sociodemographic
characteristics of predominant lifestyles are needed.


Ho, C.S., Gould, R.A., Jensen, L.N., Kiser, S.J., Mozar, A., &
Jensen, J.B. (1991). Evaluation of nutrient content of school, sack
and vending lunch of junior high students.  School Food Service
Research Review, 15, 85-90.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the nutrient content of
school and alternative lunches as consumed by junior high school
students using the visual plate waste method.  The amount consumed
was calculated by subtracting the amount of waste from the total
initial service.  The initial serving was weighed for school lunch
and was visually estimated for sack and vending lunches.  Nutrient
content of every lunch was analyzed and compared among types of
lunch.  Of the total 254 participants, 140 consumed school lunch,
84 consumed sack lunch and 30 consumed vending lunch.  School and
sack lunch as consumed contained higher amounts (p<0.05) of most
nutrients when compared to vending lunch except for vitamin C and
A in school and sack, respectively.  School lunch provided greater
amounts (p<0.05) of energy, protein, total fats, cholesterol and
sodium than sack lunch.  The mean percent of calories from total
fats was 39 with 14% from saturated fat (SAF) for school lunch, and
35 with 9% from SAF for sack lunch.  The distribution of energy
nutrients needs to be increased in all lunches.  The sodium content
and percent of calories from saturated fat should be reduced in
school lunch.


Meyers, A.F., Sampson, A.E., & Weltman, M. (1991).  Nutrition and
academic performance in school children.  Clinics in Applied
Nutrition, 1, 13-25.

This article reviewed findings on hunger, subclinical micronutrient
deficiencies, iron deficiencies, stunting, and failure to thrive. 
Studies of school meal programs also are reviewed.  The authors
concluded that there is strong evidence to support correlations
between iron deficiencies and academic performance.  Such findings
should provide strong incentives to nutritionists, physicians, and
other health care providers and educators to focus on prevention of
iron deficiency, especially in children from low-income families
and during hard economic times.  The importance of breakfast was
emphasized because of the detrimental effects of morning fasting. 
In closing the authors discussed how the supposed disparity in
social welfare between rich and poor in the United States skews the
balance of nutrient-based academic performance and they proposed
that the only remedy for this inequity is the redistribution of
wealth by the federal government into school feeding programs.


Resnicow, K., & Reinhardt, J.  (1991).  What do children know about
fat fiber, and cholesterol?  A survey of 5,116 primary and
secondary school students.  Journal of Nutrition Education, 23, 65-
71.

This article presented the findings of several surveys administered
between 1986 and 1989 that examined the knowledge and attitudes of
5,116 first through twelfth grade students regarding fat, fiber,
and cholesterol.  Children, ages 5-18, from five states were
surveyed using age-appropriate questionnaires.  Across grade
levels, the subjects' responses indicated a general awareness of
the nutritional effects of fiber, fat and cholesterol.  Students
appeared to have limited knowledge of the cholesterol and fiber
content of specific foods.  This data suggest that American
children lack total understanding of the nutritional information
required to make healthy food choices.  Additional research is
needed to address the content and format of school-based nutrition
education.


Balentine, M.B., Stitt, K.R., Bonner, J., & Clark, L.J. (1990). 
Weight perceptions and dietary practices of black, low-income
adolescents.  School Food Service Research Review, 14, 103-107.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the weight perceptions
of low-income black adolescents and their methods of dieting to
lose weight.  Of the 1,097 students in grades seven and eight who
participated in the study, 25% were dieting, although 61% of the
dieters were actually underweight or within their expected weight
range.  Incidence of self-reported anorexia and bulimia were 6 and
8%, respectively.  A majority of the dieters had exercised and
followed a balanced, low-calorie diet to lose weight; however,
almost half had resorted to fasting as a weight-reduction method. 
Approximately 10% reported that they had used other unsound
approaches to weight reduction.  These findings suggest that
adolescents may need help in defining realistic weight levels for
themselves and in selecting sensible methods of weight reduction
that foster healthy bodies and a sense of well-being.

 
Harris, E.W., Lanzidelle, D.A., & McKinney, S. (1990).  The
nutritional value of food purchased from an a la carte lunch menu. 
School Food Service Research Review, 14, 94-97.

Foods purchased by over 1,300 high school students in an urban a la
carte lunch program were analyzed for their nutritional value.  The
students' food purchases were observed and recorded and then
verified with the cash register tapes.  Foods selected were
assessed for nine nutrients (kilocalories, protein, calcium, iron,
thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, vitamin C, and vitamin A) and then
computed as a percentage of the RDA for males and females 15 to 18
years of age.  Nutrient adequacy was based on one-third of the RDA,
the percentage required for the standard school lunch.  Significant
differences in nutrient intake were found for grade and gender. 
Females consumed higher percents of the RDA for kilocalories,
riboflavin, vitamin C, and vitamin A compared to males who consumed
higher percents of the RDA for protein, calcium, and iron.  Upper-
class students consumed higher percents of the RDA for
kilocalories, niacin, iron, thiamin, riboflavin, and vitamin A. 
Vitamin C, however, was the only nutrient for which intake levels
were at 33% of the RDA; ninth grade students consumed more of this
nutrient than any other class.  The majority of students made
single food purchases, although they could choose from a variety of
a la carte foods.  The findings of this study suggest that
adolescents could be at risk for inadequate nutrient intake if they
do not purchase combinations of a la carte foods or supplement
their single purchases with food brought from home.


Lindeman, A.K., & Clancy, K.L. (1990).  Assessment of breakfast
habits and social/emotional behavior of elementary schoolchildren. 
Journal of Nutrition Education, 22, 226-231.

This study was conducted to determine whether eating breakfast
affected the social/emotional behavior of 184 third and fourth
grade students in New York.  On designated days, teachers randomly
chose students' behaviors to observe.  On the same day the entire
class completed surveys which included food intake.  Almost all of
the students (90.6%) ate breakfast.  The low number of students
omitting breakfast resulted in inadequate information to detect
statistical differences in classroom behavior between those
students who ate versus those who omitted breakfast.  Those
students who omitted breakfast were significantly more tired and
hungry upon arrival at school.  Larger sample size studies are
needed to determine social/emotional changes present in non-
breakfast eaters.


Meyers, A.F., Sampson, A.E., Weitzman, M., Rogers, B.L., & Kayne,
H. (1989).  School breakfast program and school performance. 
American Journal of Diseases of Children, 143, 1234-1239.

The purpose of this research was to determine the impact of
participation in the School Breakfast Program (SBP) on standardized
test scores and on rates of absence and tardiness.  Six grade
schools in Lawrence, Massachusetts (where the school breakfast
program began in 1987) were selected for the study.  Children in
grades 3-6 who qualified for free and reduced meals were included
in the sample.  Changes in Comprehensive Tests of Basic Skills
scores and rates of tardiness or absenteeism were calculated and
these were compared to children who qualified for free and reduced
meals but did not participate in the program.  Overall the children
who participated in the school breakfast program had higher
achievement test scores and lower rates of absenteeism and
tardiness than did nonparticipants.  Thus, it was concluded that
the SBP contributed to academic accomplishments.


Simeon, D.T., & Grantham-McGregor, S. (1989).  Effects of missing
breakfast on the cognitive functions of school children of
differing nutritional status.  American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition, 49, 646-653.

This study was conducted to determine the effects of missing
breakfast on cognitive function in school children in the following
categories:  growth retardation (stunted), previously severely
malnourished, and a control group.  Ninety Jamaican children ages
9 to 10.5 years old were selected. The subjects were admitted
overnight to a research ward on two occasions one week apart.  The
next morning they were served either a standard breakfast or a cup
of tea.  By systematic random assignment, half of the children
received breakfast on their first visit and tea their second visit. 
The treatment order was reversed for the other half of the
children.  Three subtests of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for
Children were administered:  arithmetic, digit span, and coding. 
The control group children were not adversely affected in any of
the cognitive tests when breakfast was omitted.  However the
previously malnourished and stunted groups were adversely affected
in fluency and coding.  Missing breakfast can be a strong
contributor to cognitive function, especially in undernourished
children.


Neggers, Y., Goldsmith, R.W., Stitt, K., & Bonner, J. (1988).  Zinc
status, dietary intake, and growth of selected low-income preschool
children.  School Food Service Research Review, 12, 16-19.

The study was conducted to determine zinc status and estimate the
dietary intakes of zinc and other selected nutrients of low-income
preschool children.  The subjects included 150 children ages 2 to
5 years.  These children usually consumed a diet slightly lower
than the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) for energy, zinc,
calcium, and iron.  The mean intake of protein, ascorbic acid, and
vitamin A were higher than the RDAs.  Zinc concentrations of hair
and serum were considered low for 66% and 23% of the children,
respectively.  Also, 69% of the children were reported to consume
less than two-thirds of the RDA for zinc.


Stitt, K.R, & Balentine, M.B. (1987).  Teenage pregnancy:  II.
Nutritional considerations.  School Food Service Research Review,
11, 14-19.

This paper presents an overview of nutrition as related to the
pregnant adolescent.  Problems related  to teenage pregnancy are
examined in light of life styles, eating habits, and nutrient
needs.  Dietary recommendations are presented with emphasis upon
dietary patterns and habits of this age group.


Hamner, T.J., & Ladewig, B. (1987).  Teenage pregnancy:  I. Social
and psychological considerations.  School Food Service Research
Review, 11, 7-13.

This paper explores the issue of teenage pregnancy and
childbearing.  Several factors relating to the persistent
occurrence of "children having children" are discussed--earlier
maturation, cultural extension of the period of adolescence,
increased adolescent sexuality, more permissive attitudes, failure
to use contraceptives effectively, particular social conditions,
ineffective parent/teen communication, and a variety of
psychological factors.  The risks of adolescent pregnancy and
childbearing, particularly for those 16 years and younger, for the
mother and child are discussed.


Price, J.H., Desmond, S.M., & Stelzer, C.M.  (1987).  Elementary
school principals' perceptions of childhood obesity.  Journal of
School Health, 57, 367-370.

The study reviewed school principals' perceptions regarding
childhood obesity and the school's role in treating obesity. 
Thirty-four items on perceptions of obesity and the role of schools
in treating/preventing obesity in children were developed for the
study.  The questionnaire and cover letter were mailed to 300
randomly selected elementary school principals from the membership
list of the National Association of Elementary School Principals. 
Two hundred twenty seven (76%) administrators returned the
questionnaire.  Fifty-one percent of principals believed normal
weight was very important to child health.  Many principals (56%)
did not believe children would outgrow their obesity.  Respondents
believed that comprehensive health curriculum with units on
nutrition and weight control (77%) and eliminations of all "junk
food" machines (71%) at the schools were the two most important
roles of schools in dealing with childhood obesity.  They also
rated school nurses (77%), school counselors (69%), and physical
education teachers (59%) as the most important personnel in
treating childhood obesity.


Siegel, S.M., Bonner, J., Stitt, K., & Aycock, K. (1987).  Nutrient
intake and outcome of pregnancy in selected low income adolescents. 
School Food Service Research Review, 11, 100-106.

This study evaluates the energy and nutrient intakes and the
outcome of pregnancy in a group of adolescents.  During the third
trimester of pregnancy, 33 subjects provided dietary information
through the use of a nutrition questionnaire and three 24-hour
recalls.  Mean energy intake was 1962 ñ 486 kilocalories and mean
protein intake 67 ñ 18 grams.  Nutrients that did not meet 66% of
Recommended Dietary Allowance were iron, magnesium, zinc, calcium,
folic acid, and vitamin B, and B12.  The mean total weight gain was
33 ñ 13 pounds, with 17 ñ 9.2 pounds during the third trimester. 
The mean infant birth weight was 3107 ñ 449.7 grams.  No
significant correlation was found between weight gain and infant
birth weight.  Prepregnancy weight was correlated significantly
with total weight gain and third trimester weight gain.  The
heavier adolescents gained more weight during pregnancy.


Bartley, K.C. (1986).  Lunch profiles of teenagers in the United
States, England and New Zealand.  School Food Service Research
Review, 10, 10-13.

An analysis of lunch intake of teenagers in the United States,
England, and New Zealand in 1982-83 compared specific foods eaten,
the nutritional quality selection according to the four food
groups, and cultural and ethnic factors which are impinging on food
choices.  Results suggested that intake in New Zealand, where there
is no school lunch program, was qualitatively similar to that in
the U.S. and England.


Farris, R.P., Cresanta, J.L., Croft, J.B., Webber, L.S., Frank,
G.C., & Berenson, G. S. (1986).  Macronutrient intakes of 10-year-
old children, 1973-1982.  Journal of the American Dietetic
Association, 86, 765-770.

This research studied the macronutrient intakes of 10 year-olds
from three aspects:  temporal trends in intakes of energy, fat,
carbohydrate, and protein; race and/or sex difference in intake
levels; and proportion of intake consumed at each meal or snack. 
A 24-hour recall interview was used to collect data from 871
children in Bogalusa, LA.  Carbohydrate contributed 49% of
calories, fat 38% of calories, and protein 13% of calories to the
daily diet.  Differences due to race were few.  While boys energy
intake was higher than girls proportionately no other differences
between the sexes were noted for other nutrients.  Snacks
represented approximately one-third of daily energy intake, one-
fifth of daily protein, one-third of daily fat and two-fifths of
total carbohydrate intake.  Compared to national studies, diets of
children in Bogalusa are similar to the typical American eating
pattern.


Story, M., & Resnick, M.D. (1986).  Adolescents' views on food and
nutrition.  Journal of Nutrition Education, 18, 188-192.

This study investigated the opinions of Minnesota adolescents' to
provide insight into adolescent eating behaviors.  Small self-
selected groups discussed nutrition issues using a series of open-
ended questions.  The discussion questions dealt with participants'
perceptions of teenagers' diets, barriers to change, attitudes
toward food and eating, food preferences, fast food, school lunch
programs, and family meals.  Nine hundred youth (grades 9 - 12)
from over 25 statewide schools participated.  Questionnaires were
analyzed using content analysis and coding techniques for
qualitative data.  The students seemed to have adequate perceptions
of good nutrition but felt they did not always make healthy choices
due to barriers in their lives.  These barriers were:  lack of
time, lack of self-discipline, and lack of a sense of urgency to
eat right.  Nutrition education would be most valuable if it
bridges the gap between teen's health knowledge and their eating
behavior.


Summer, S.K. (1986).  Obesity in the school age child.  School Food
Service Research Review, 10, 82-86.

Factors associated with development of child and adolescent
obesity, long-term health implications, and treatments for
successful management are reviewed.  Comprehensive programs
including behavior modification, nutrition education, and physical
activity are effective in the treatment of mild to moderate obesity
in children.  The school setting is appropriate for treatment and
prevention programs.


Balentine, M.B., Stitt, K., Bonner, J., & Clark, L. (1986). 
Dieting practices and attitudes of overweight, underweight, and
ideal weight school girls.  School Food Service Research Review,
10, 98-103.

The study was designed to determine the dieting practices and
attitudes of overweight, underweight, and ideal weight adolescents
in two school systems.  Of the 560 girls, 74 and 26% were white and
black, respectively.  Although almost half were underweight
according to height-weight tables, most had tried to diet to lose
weight.  The overweight adolescent appeared to be preoccupied with
food and dieting.  The underweight girl is more likely to have
anorexia; whereas, the overweight student is more likely to
practice bulimia.


North, B.B., Burkholder, V.R., Thompson, E.R., & Anfinrud, L.M.
(1986).  Mineral content of school lunch menus.  School Food
Service Research Review, 10, 104-108.

The purpose of the study was to evaluate the calorie, protein, and
mineral content of school lunch meal pattern menus served at a
public school in central North Dakota as set forth in the Child
Nutrition Regulations.  Calcium, phosphorus, iron, magnesium,
sodium, potassium, and zinc contents of school lunch meal patterns
were compared to one-third the recommended dietary allowances
(RDAs), and the interrelationship between calorie, protein, and
mineral content of the menus was determined.  The caloric, protein,
and mineral levels in the menus were calculated from food
composition tables for the standard menus for 19 days.  On some
days, optional foods were available to the students.  Observation
by the researchers was used to determine amounts selected by the
students and nutrient content was calculated from food composition
tables.  Results indicated calorie and magnesium means were below
the nutritional goals, while means for calcium, phosphorus, iron,
sodium, potassium, and zinc met or exceeded one-third the RDAs. 
Nutrient density values indicated high nutrient foods were served. 
Statistically significant differences (p<0.01) between the calorie,
protein, and mineral contents and one-third of the RDAs were
observed for the standard menus.  Similar results were reported for
the optional menus with exception of magnesium, which was found not
to differ significantly from one-third of the RDA.  Statistically
significant correlation between a majority of the mineral values
and calorie and protein values were found.


Newell, G.K., Vaden, A.G., Aitken, E.F., & Dayton, A.D. (1985). 
Food consumption and quality of diets of Kansas elementary
students.  Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 85, 939-
945.

This study was conducted to examine consumption of various foods by
Kansas elementary students.  Objectives were to:  classify foods
into groups with similar nutrient composition, determine the
frequency of consumption of foods in these groups, determine
effects of consumption of the food groups on dietary quality, and
determine the relationship between energy level and food
consumption.  Data were collected from 3,231 fifth grade students
in 97 randomly selected elementary schools.  Twenty-four hour food
recall interviews were conducted on a randomly selected subsample
of approximately 40% of the students.  Eleven food group categories
were established.  Mean adequacy ratios were calculated to
determine nutritional quality.  High protein foods were eaten by
90% of the subjects and milk and milk products were consumed by 97%
of students.  Eighty percent of the students ate grain products
three or more times per day.  Sugary products were consumed by half
of the students one or two times daily.  More than 60% consumed
fats and oils once or twice daily.  Foods in the following
categories were consumed more frequently as energy intake
increased:  Milk and milk products, high-protein foods, grain
products, vegetables, fruits, sugary products, and fats.  Students
should be encouraged to reduce sugar and high fat foods to reduce
energy intake but keep nutrients at a high level.  Nutrient
education should be directed toward the consumption of nutrient
dense foods.


Skinner, J.D., Salvetti, N.N., Ezell, J.M., Penfield, M.P., &
Costello, C.A. (1985).  Appalachian adolescents' eating patterns
and nutrient intakes.  Journal of The American Dietetic
Association, 85, 1093-1099.

This article reported on a study conducted in Tennessee to
determine eating patterns and nutrient intake of junior and senior
high school students.  The study focused on the following
variables:  gender, region (metropolitan vs. rural), and meal
preparer (mother or self).  The survey instruments included a 24-
hour food record and a written questionnaire, which was used to
elicit information usual eating patterns.  Nutrient analysis was
performed on meals reported and diet quality was calculated based
on nutrient intake per 1,000 kilocalories.  Questionnaires and food
records were completed by 225 students, a return rate of 68.4%. 
Thirty four percent of respondents skipped breakfast, 15% did not
eat any lunch, and 6% omitted the evening meal.  High incidences of
meal skipping, snack consumption, and snack-like meals suggest
unstructured eating patterns among many adolescents in this sample. 
The investigators concluded that the challenge for nutrition
educators is to determine how to educate adolescents to select
nutrient-dense foods whenever and wherever they eat.
                      NUTRITION EDUCATION
                                  
                                  
Thomas, L.F., Long, E.M., & Zaske, J.M. (1994).  Nutrition
education sources and priorities of elementary school teachers. 
Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 94, 318-320.

The purpose of this study was to identify the sources of nutrition
information used by elementary school teachers in preparing lessons
and to determine teachers rank order of importance of nutrition
issues in elementary classroom instruction.  Surveys were mailed to
all 2,359 elementary school teachers who attended a National Dairy
Council training workshop between the years of 1987 and 1991. 
About 30% responded (n=651).  The two main sources of nutrition
information used by these teachers were Dairy Council materials and
health texts.  Other sources used included television, newspapers,
popular magazines, educational journals, health organizations,
health professionals, and college or university courses.  The
majority of respondents (57.6%) rarely or never used information
from commodity food organizations.  Basic healthful eating was
rated as a very important or important issue.


Zemel, P.C., Brokaw, S., Huntsinger, D., & McMichael, C.F. (1993). 
What do teachers use and what do they need to teach healthful
eating in schools?  School Food Service Research Review, 17, 41-45.

The purpose of this study was to identify the types of nutrition
education resources used by elementary school teachers and the
degree to which they were able to evaluate children's eating
habits.  Surveys were sent to 250 elementary school teachers in a
school system; 38% responded.  More than 96% of these teachers
reported teaching about foods and nutrition, primarily in health
(97%), science (78%), and language art (61%) units.  Most teachers
(75%) indicated they made their own educational materials.  School
food service-related activities were included in the classroom by
33% of the teachers.  Teachers were interested in receiving
inservice training and having access to additional materials to
teach about food and nutrition.  Teachers also rated their
students' overall dietary quality; 61% rated diets as fair to poor. 
They indicated that students needed improvement in four areas:
increasing fruit and vegetable consumption (79%), eating a variety
of foods (67%), choosing foods low in fat (68%), and using sugars
in moderation (60%).  More than 26% of the teachers also reported
that they had children in their class who were hungry.  Results
suggest that elementary school teachers are teaching nutrition
education, but only some teachers utilize school food service
resources.  Results also indicate that elementary school teachers
can be an important part of a comprehensive program to teach
healthy eating in schools.


Contento, I.R., Manning, A.D., & Shannon, B. (1992).  Research
perspective on school-based nutrition education.  Journal of
Nutrition Education, 24, 247-260.

This study reviewed the major school-based nutrition education
research studies conducted since 1980.  Nutrition education had a
positive effect on cognitive outcomes such as nutrition knowledge,
diet-related skills, behavioral expectations, and self-efficacy. 
However most of these programs involved only 10-15 hours of
instruction over a 3-15 week period.  Research designs and
methodologies have clearly improved.  Nutrition education programs
impact on behavior has been minimal.  Studies that were modestly
successful in achieving behavioral change were those based on
social learning theory, with its emphasis on observing models,
practicing cognitive and behavior skills, role-playing, active
self-monitoring of personal behavior, goal setting, and providing
rewards.  Programs that were several years in duration have
resulted in long term dietary intakes and physiological parameters. 
Teacher preparation/training increased the time spent on nutrition
education.  Parental involvement in nutrient education helped to
sustain nutritional changes made by younger students.  The
educational impact of low fat, low sodium, and nutritious school
meals has not been reported.


Koblinsky, S.A., Guthrie, J.F., & Lynch, L. (1992).  Evaluation of
a nutrition education program for Head Start parents.  Journal of
Nutrition Education, 24, 4-12.

This study examined the effects of a nutrition education program on
the nutrition-related behaviors of Head Start parents and on the
quality and diversity of their children's diets.  A treatment group
participated in a nutrition education program and a control group
did not participate.  Three New York City and two Maryland Head
Start centers were assigned to the treatment group, and three
centers from each state were assigned to the control group.  A
total of 171 Head Start mothers completed both pre-program and
post-program interviews.  The nutrition education program consisted
of 13 weekly nutrition newsletters and four workshops on children's
nutritional issues offered to the mothers.  At least one month
following the treatment program Maryland parents in the treatment
group reported their children were consuming a significantly more
diverse and higher quality diet with more servings of selected
nutritious foods than children in the control group.  No
significant differences were noted for the New York children but
they were already consuming more than the minimum number of
servings of proteins, dairy foods, and fruits and vegetables.  Both
states noted significant positive changes in meal planning, food
purchases, and preparation for the treatment group.  This study
demonstrated that a nutrition education program for Head Start
parents can have a positive impact on parental behavior with
reported improvements in the family diet.


Stanek, K.L., Reischl, D., & Grandjean, A. (1991).  An assessment
of nutrition education in Nebraska public high schools.  Journal of
Vocational Home Economics Education, 9, 21-31.

This study was conducted to determine the current status of
nutrition education in Nebraska public high schools.  Specific
objectives included the investigation of subject areas in which
nutrition is being taught, percent of time utilized, concepts
currently being taught, materials being used, and additional
nutrition materials desired.  A total of 419 (43.8%) teachers in
276 Nebraska high schools returned surveys.  In assessing
preparation to teach nutrition, 97% of home economics teachers,
37.8% of  health teachers, 26.7% of physical education teachers and
14.5% of science teachers had been required to complete a nutrition
course in their graduate or undergraduate education.  Respondents
indicated that home economic teachers should have primary
responsibility for teaching nutrition education; however, only 42%
of high school students take home economics.  Teachers were
incorporating the concept of vitamins and minerals, human
digestion, individual nutrient needs, diet, heart disease and
cancer in the curriculum.  Teachers expressed a need for additional
audio-visual material,  guest speakers, computer software, and
educational resource packages.


Frongillo, Jr., E.A, Olson, C.M., & Schardt, D.G. (1990). 
Administrators' views on school-based nutrition education.  Journal
of Nutrition Education, 22, 74-80.

The purpose of this research was to examine school administrators'
views on nutrition education in elementary schools.  The sample
consisted of 330 superintendents and 290 elementary school
principals in New York State and northern New Jersey.  The
questionnaire, which was returned by 76% of administrators,
consisted of five stages:  the decision to teach food and
nutrition; the selection of teaching programs and materials;
introduction to teaching programs; implementation; and
incorporation of food and nutrition into school curriculum. 
Administrators overwhelmingly stated that elementary schools (K-6)
should have a role in teaching foods and nutrition.  Teachers were
considered to be the most influential group in determining whether
nutrition education was taught and how it was taught. 
Administrators viewed nutrition educators outside of schools as
influential in the selection of nutrition education programs and
materials.  Superintendents and principals did not  believe that
food and nutrition courses would have a broad reaching impact on
students.  Parents and school boards were viewed by administrators
as having very little influence on the decision to incorpora