A Study of the Taiping Rebellion Lester K. Buehler, Ph.D. Gateway Middle School St. Louis, MO Summarizing the Taiping Rebellion The Taiping Rebellion (1851-1864) is an event that has been lost in time and recently ignored except by the most passionate scholar of China. Even many who consider themselves students of modern China would not recognize the name Hong Xiuquan. Yet, this cataclysmic spectacle claimed more lives than any other world event excepting World War II. During this time of turmoil, over 20,000,000 Chinese died and the Qing Dynasty tottered on the brink of fall six decades before its eventual collapse. How was this failed member of the scholar gentry, who believed himself to be the younger brother of Jesus Christ and, thus, "God's Chinese Son" able to gather armies and challenge the Qing Mandate of Heaven? Previous Christian missions had been rewarded with little success. Yet, Hong's version of the gospel was indigenous and was introduced during a period of enormous population growth, goading poverty, and extreme economic dislocation. It was this combination of factors as much as his religious teachings that attracted the multitudes to the teachings of Hong Xiuquan. The eventual failure of the movement may be attributed to Hong's imperial and deistic pretensions, internal discord among the Taiping leadership, and foreign support for a dynasty that had recently yielded enormous concessions to European governments and traders. A student of this period may easily be bogged down in the theological tracts and imperial internecine warfare. For a true understanding of the movement and its leader, consult the works of Jonathon Spence* and approach your task using this quote from John Patrick Davies Jr. as a guide. ". . .Had it not been for the great groundswell of popular discontent, Hung (Hong) would not have gone beyond an obscure religious crackpot, unnoticed in history." *The most interesting work on the period is "God's Chinese Son." Two lectures, which Spence gave at Baylor University in 1996, are also informative. These lectures have been reprinted under the title, "The Taiping Version of a Christian China." Table of Contents for Hong Xiuquan and the Taiping Rebellion Introduction Part I: Hong Xiuquan and the God-worshipers Part II: Hong Xiuquan and the Heavenly Kingdom Part III: Hong Xiuquan and the Heavenly Capital Part IV: The Death of Hong Xiuquan and the End of the Taiping Rebellion Part V: Notes for Parts I-IV Part VI: Cast of Characters for the Taiping Rebellion Part VII: Important Dates in the Life of Hong Xiuquan Part VIII: Listing of Sources Introduction It is often too easy to view American history, especially a cataclysmic event like the Civil War in isolation, not recognizing nor understanding contemporary events which happened in other areas of the world. The period from 1848-1870 was one of war, rebellion, revolution, and evolution. States and individuals in Italy and Germany began a series of events that would lead to the unification of those two nations. Revolutions took place in many western European nations. Alexander II of Russia emancipated the long-suffering serfs. Admiral Perry of the United States opened the long cloistered Japanese islands to outside trade. And, in the Middle Kingdom of China, an obscure, would-be scholar led a revolt under the banner of Christianity, which would lead to the deaths of more than 20,000,000 Chinese; a casualty rate higher than any other world event with the exception of World War II. Who was this man who claimed to be God's second born, and why did his teachings attract such a following when other Christian missions failed. Part I: Hong Xiuquan and the God-worshipers Hong Xiuquan was born in Hua County thirty miles north of Canton in 1814. While his father and older brothers worked in the fields, he studied assiduously to be a member of the scholarly gentry and traveled to Canton in 1836 to take the required examination. During this stay, he acquired a copy of a Christian work "Good Works for Exhorting the Age," from Edwin Stevens, an American missionary. Hong failed his exams, and though he showed little interest in his newly acquired theological tract, he kept the book. After failing the exams again the 1837, Hong became ill, and believing in his imminent death summoned his family to his bedside. While he faded in and out of a conscious state Hong began to dream of Heaven. In these strange dreams attendants slit open his body, removed its internal organs, and replaced them with new ones. He is then introduced to his Heavenly Mother who cleanses him in the river so that he may be taken back to meet his Heavenly Father. Hong's father is tall, wears a black robe, and has a long golden beard that reaches his abdomen. His father tells him of the harm done by the demon-devils and gives Hong permission to do battle with them in Heaven. Hong battles their leader, Yan Luo, the King of hell, defeats him, and then spares him as instructed to do by his Heavenly Father. During the struggle his elder brother stands behind him and puts the other demons to flight by a bright light, which emanates from a golden seal. After he has defeated Yan Luo and the demon-devils, Hong is returned to earth by his celestial father so that he may destroy their terrestrial counterparts. During the course of his strange illness, Hong Xiuquan's family watched over him. He often rose from his sickbed and ran around the room, arms flaying about, as he shouted, "Slash the demons". Believing that he had gone mad, his family kept him confined to his room.1 Over time as the illness subsided Hong became more serene, and lacking a viable interpretation of his dreams, returned to his studies. Despite his hard work, he failed the exams two more times. In 1843, after failing in his fourth, and what would be his final attempt, and at the urging of a relative, Hong finally reads the mysterious book, which he had received in 1836. He immediately begins to identify with Jesus, who had begun his teachings at age thirty, Hong's present age. With this dream, and his new text as his guide, Hong Xiuquan determines that Jesus is actually his elder brother, and identifies himself as God's second son, "God's Chinese Son."2 Hong and Li Jingfeng, a relative who had also read this religious text, then baptized each other. He immediately converted two other relatives, Hong Rengan and Feng Yunshan. He then expressed his mission to Hong Rengan, " . . . I have received the immediate command from God in his presence; the will of Heaven rests with me."3 In 1844 Hong and his two cousins remove the venerated Confucian tablets from the schools where they teach and are fired from their positions. Hong Rengan is forbidden by his father and elder brother to join Hong Xiuquan, Feng Yunshan, and two of Feng's relatives when they leave Guanlubu in April 1844, to spread the word according to this new member of God's family. While Feng Yunshan moved deeper into the interior of the Thistle Mountains, Hong Xiuquan returned home in November 1844, resumed his teachings, and continued to work on his religious writings. In 1847, Hong began a period of study with an American missionary, Issachar Roberts, in preparation for a second and more official baptism. However, before this could take place there was some sort of disagreement between the two men, and on July 12, 1847, Hong resumed his travels without the anticipated baptism. He reached the Thistle Mountain area on August 27, 1847, and was reunited with Feng Yunshan and Feng's assembled congregation. Many members of this group, who now refer to themselves as the God-worshipers, are literate, but like Hong have previously failed their government examinations. In the spring of 1848, the God-worshipers are joined by Yang Xiuqing who will become the voice of God on earth. Hong accepts that it is his Celestial Father speaking through Yang voice, and that the voice of his elder brother, Jesus, comes to him through another member of the group, Xiao Chaogui. Both Yang and Xiao entered trances when they transmit these heavenly messages. It was also during this time that other members of the group began to have sudden fits in which they lapse into verbal incoherence while their bodies quivered and were bathed in perspiration. The movement had begun to take on a more mystical aspect, and rapidly became a threatening religious cult, rather than just another one of the secret societies present in China at that time. After death of his father in 1849 Hong Xiuquan allowed his hair to grow long as part of the mourning process and in violation of Manchu law.4 By 1850 Hong has identified the Manchu government and their officials as the demon-devils he has been sent back to earth to destroy. However, unlike the other resistance movements which are active at this time, Hong does not call for the restoration of the Ming dynasty, but instead encourages the creation of a new one. In April 1850, Hong dons a robe of imperial yellow so that all can see who will be the leader of this new dynasty. It is also during this time that mass baptisms of God-worshipers took place and the leaders began to hint at separation of the sexes. Men and women are to be segregated on earth and reunited only when they reach the heavenly Kingdom. Strict physical punishment is adopted for those who violate these arrangements. On November 23, 1849, Hong's son is born. He is given the name Tiangui, which means "Heaven's Precious One." Hong then sends for his family, and after a perilous journey, they are able to join him and his followers at Thistle Mountain, in June 1850. By this time strange events are beginning to take place among the God-worshipers. In May 1950, Yang Xiuqing (the voice of God) suddenly became ill. Yang's malady made him deaf and dumb; pus poured from his ears, and water from his eyes. During this same period, the voice of Jesus comes through Xiao Chaogui on two occasions. However, these problems are temporary, and by September 1850, Yang Xiuqing has recovered from his mysterious illness. It now became customary for the God-worshipers to gather in their units and recite the Ten Commandments. Those who fail to attend these mandatory meetings might be beaten with one hundred blows and dismissed from their military posts. In March 1851, during a protracted struggle with Qing forces, Hong Xiuquan formally declared the existence of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, and began his quest to locate the city that would become the heavenly capital. Part II: Hong Xiuquan and the Heavenly Kingdom Though surrounded by Qing forces, who now viewed the movement as a threat to the ruling dynasty, Taiping forces are able to break out their Thistle mountain enclosure and on September 25, 1851 captured their first city, Yongan. Hong Xiuquan entered the city on October 1, 1851, and immediately announced the hierarchy of this new kingdom. Hong Xiuquan Heavenly King Lord of 10,000 years Yang Xiuqing East King Lord of 9,000 years Xiao Chaogui West King Lord of 8,000 years Feng Yunshan South King Lord of 7,000 years Wei Changhui North King Lord of 6,000 years Shi Dakai Wing King Lord of 5,000 years Tiangui (Hong's son) The Young Monarch of 10,000 years In December 1951, after the wounding of Xiao Chaogui in battle, Yang Xiuqing is given power over the other kings by Hong. This appointment makes him second in authority only to Hong Xiuquan himself, and will later lead to a crisis in the leadership of the Taiping. Taiping forces, which now number more than 40,000 begin a thirty-three day siege of the city of Guilin. Upon their failure to achieve this objective, they resume their northern march. It is during this journey that Feng Yunshan (South King) is mortally wounded by a sniper. As retribution for the loss of one of their leaders Taiping forces attack the city of Quanzhou and slaughter most of the residents. After sacking Quanzhou, Hong and his followers continue their travels by way of the Xiang River. It is during this part of their journey that they are ambushed by Qing forces and over 10,000 members are either killed in battle or drowned. Many of those dead are the original God-worshipers from the province of Guangxi who had given the movement its strength. Yet, as the Taiping army moves through Hunan province more than 50,000 new converts join their ranks. Many of these latter recruits see the movement not so much as a religious crusade as an attempt to relieve unfair social conditions and redistribute land. Nourished by this influx of new recruits, the Taiping army now laid siege to the city of Changsha. It is during this action that the voice of Jesus is stilled permanently when Xiao Chaogui (West King) falls victim to a marksmen's bullet. Though this siege is unsuccessful and abandoned in November 1852, it is only two months later that the Taiping claim their largest prize to date when the city of Wuchang fall to them on January 12, 1853. All wealth is removed from the homes of Qing officials and other citizen who have fled and is placed in a common treasury. When Taiping forces leave Wuchang on February 10, 1853, they take with them gold, treasure, 10,000 more followers, and 2,000 more boats to be added to their ever-growing navy. They now begin a six hundred-mile journey toward the city of Nanjing by way of the Yangzi River with armed columns of soldiers following the armada on shore. Nanjing, like many other Chinese cities, is a walled fortress. Its wall rises over forty feet in height and gives the appearance of being a formidable task for a besieging army. Yet, the twenty-five mile circumference of the walls makes the city difficult to defend, and on March 19, 1853, the walls of the Northwest corner are breached by Taiping forces. Ten days later, wearing yellow robe and shoes of an emperor, Hong Xiuquan entered Nanjing while being carried on a golden palanquin. Riding astride horses behind Hong are thirty-two women, each carrying a yellow parasols. Hong Xiuquan and the Taiping faithful have reached their heavenly capital at last. Part III: Hong Xiuquan and the Heavenly Capital After the capture of their new capital the Taiping leaders devised a land redistribution system and created public granaries where food could be stored. Citizens of the city are told they must use their acquired skills and expertise for the general welfare for the entire community. People are instructed to keep nothing for their private use, but to give all to God for use in common.5 The Taiping reaction to other religious communities inside the city is a strange combination of intolerance, persecution, and neglect. Taoist and Buddhist temples in Nanjing are burned to the ground, yet, Moslem mosques remain untouched. At least thirty members of the Catholic community are killed and the remainder are sent to the front as soldiers and laborers if they refuse to drop their Roman Catholic liturgy and begin the recitation of Taiping prayers. After the capture of Taiping, and to ensure the Taiping capital's difference from the "demon-den" in Peking, segregation of the sexes and prohibitions on the other sexual activities become more restrictive. Those accused of acts of prostitution are executed along with their families, and male homosexuality is similarly punished. Even the washing and mending of men's clothes by women is forbidden so that is does not lead to increased contact between the sexes, which could later foster sexual activity. Many of the permanent residents of occupied Nanjing resent these new rules, especially the disruption of any family activity due to the complete separation of the sexes. Work in the capital is considered to be a social obligation and idleness is considered a sin. The accumulation of private wealth is strictly forbidden. The buying and selling of slaves is now outlawed, as is the practice of foot binding among women. Women are given more rights and responsibilities, serve in their own military units, and are even allowed to take public examinations. However, the Taiping leaders later abandon many of these feminist ideals, as they become more accustomed to power. In an effort to end the Qing dynasty, the Taiping send an expedition of 70,000 warriors north toward Peking in May 1853. However, preparations are inadequate for the severe northern winter and many of Hong's soldiers fall victim to the weather. No supply lines are kept open to Nanjing and the constant foraging of the troops enrages the local population. This northern expedition never reached beyond the city of Tianjin, about seventy miles from Peking. By May 1854, the army has been surrounded by government troops and the Qing commander is able to divert water from the Grand Canal and flood the Taiping camps. Here admist the water and mud, while clinging to makeshift rafts, many of their faithful meet their deaths at the hands of the Manchu forces. The remainder of the expedition is driven back toward Nanjing and is completely annihilated in March 1855, at Lianzhen. Strange and disturbing events have now begun to happen within Nanjing itself. At the end of December 1853, Yang Xiuqing has once again begun to speak as the voice of God. The message is received while Yang is in the presence of only four female attendants and is critical of Hong Xiuquan. It seems, according to God through Yang Xiuqing, that the Taiping leader has become too harsh to those around him and too indulgent of his four-year-old son, Tiangui, who is rapidly developing into the palace brat. In a second visitation through Yang, Hong is ordered to receive forty blows from a rod for his transgressions, but is able to escape God's wrath by meekly prostrating himself and receiving forgiveness. However, because of the accusations regarding Hong's stern disposition, Yang Xiuqing will not be the judge of all cases that might result in the death penalty. Yang, who is also now recognized as the younger brother of Jesus, has added to his title those of "Comforter" and "Wind of the Holy Spirit." 6 Within the city walls of Nanjing it was becoming increasing difficult to enforce certain aspects of the Taiping program. Many now refused to pay their required tithes or join the various squads of working families as ordered by the government. It has also become harder to maintain the separation of sexes, and in 1855 this practice is finally abandoned. Yang Xiuqing (East King), and "Lord of Nine Thousand Years" has continued to accrue more and more power. God now speaks in his dreams, and Yang then relays God's words to the faithful. When Yang travels, he is saluted by golden gongs and drums as a sacred cannon. Even Hong Xiuquan himself must kneel and wait in the doorway of Yang's palace in order to receive God's heavenly messages. It is Yang who now decides which of the former God-worshipers have violated the laws of Heaven and must meet their end as "lighted heavenly lanterns."7 He has also assumed a more active and prominent role in the military campaigns of the Taiping. These additional powers increase his jealousy toward Hong Xiuquan. Yang questions why he remains the "Lord of Nine Thousand Years" while Hong is still the "Lord of Ten Thousand Years." Pursuant of a title change, Yang sends Hong's most loyal supporters to various fronts outside Nanjing and in their absence expresses to Hong that he would like an equal title. Realizing that he is momentarily powerless to deny this request, the "Lord of Ten Thousand Years" gives his assent, but immediately orders his loyal followers to return with their armies to the capital. Wei Changhui (North King) and the General Qin Rigang return to Nanjing on September 1, 1856. They attack Yang's palace and slaughter the East King along with members of his family and followers who are still present. Yang Xiuqing's head is severed and suspended from a pole in the street. The voice of God has now fallen silent. Yet, within the walls of Nanjing were six thousand of Yang's loyal followers. Hong Xiuquan and Wei Changhui then engaged in a bit of a clever subterfuge. Hong issued a terse statement in which he denounced the murdering of Yang and his family and ordered the arrest of General Qin Rigang and Wei Changhui. Both were sentenced to a public flogging of five hundred blows, which were to be administered in the outer courtyard of Hong's palace. The loyal followers of the dead East King were invited to watch this spectacle and, according to custom, left their weapons at the gate. As the blows began to fall on the two accused leaders, Yang adherents filed into the courtyard to get a better view. However, once they entered the courtyard the beatings ceased and the gates closed behind them. The next morning those trapped inside the gates are massacred by forces loyal to Hong Xiuquan. The slaughter in Nanjing continued for another three months as Qin and Wei conducted house-to-house searches in an effort to root out all of Yang's supporters. Disturbed by events in the capital, Shi Dakai (West King) returned to Nanjing in early October 1856. He admonished Wei Changhui for his actions and accused him of inadvertently aiding the Qing government. Warned by his friends that these accusations now made him a target for assassination, Shi fled the city. That same night Wei Changhui and Qin Rigang ordered the murder of Shi's family and followers. The West King, upon hearing of the demise of his family and fiends, then gathered an army and prepared to attack the capital. In order to satisfy his best general's bloodlust and avoid the attack, Hong had both Wei and Qin killed and sent the head of Wei to Shi Dakai as proof that he had avenged the death of Shi's family. After receiving Wei's severed head, Shi returned to Nanjing and to the adulation of the populace who recognized him as the best of Taiping generals. After these months of turmoil in the heavenly capital, Shi remained the only one of the original five kings still alive, so Hong named two of his elder brothers as kings. Hong Renfa is now designated as the "Peace King" and Hong Renda is proclaimed the "Blessings King." Hard feelings and resentment now begin to fester between Shi Dakai and Hong's two siblings. The West King becomes disgruntled with the power given to Hong's two brothers and leaves Nanjing with all his forces in the summer of 1857. Feeling that he has once again been betrayed, Hong now trusts no one other than the member of his own family, and morale in the heavenly Kingdom continues to decline. Taiping forces had now reached a state of disarray that many might have surrendered had it not been for the insistence on the part of Qing leaders that all those captured would be executed. Inside the imperial palace Hong had become more and more reclusive and has surrounded himself with a retinue of more than two thousand female attendants. Included in this group are female ministers and bureaucrats, female maids and servers, and the women of Hong's immediate family. Among this latter group were not only his mother, mother-in-law, and senior consort, Lai, but also as many as eighty-eight other consorts. Rules and regulations for these women were very strict, and others had to prevail at all times. No crying, sad faces, or voices raised in anger were allowed. Hong insisted on complete cleanliness among his women, some of whose sole responsibility was to remain in close proximity to the Heavenly King and fan insects away from him so that none might land on his august person. These attendants were responsible for Hong's washing and dressing as well as their own. All were required to rinse their mouth and wash their hands so that their breath was fresh and their hands were clean when they attended their "Lord of Ten Thousand years." Their hair must always be kept perfectly coifed and their feet must never be bound. Sometimes they accompanied him on his frequent garden walks, and if he chose to ride, would pull him in his palanquin. Each day these female servants were expected to read from the Bible and from the poems of Hong Xiuquan. Women who were guilty of repeating the same mistake were beaten, and if they were not contrite and cheerful while enduring their punishment, were subject to execution. Hong told them, "if you do not care for your sovereign there are others who will." 8 It is in April 1859 that Hong Rengan, cousin of Hong Xiuquan, finally reached Nanjing. Despite being one of his earliest converts, a close relative, and a trusted friend, he has not seen the Heavenly King in a decade. Yet, Hong welcomes his return to the flock and appoints him "Shield King." Hong Rengan recommended many changes in the capital such as the creation of a banking system and postal service. Hong agreed to these improvements, but balked when the Shield King suggested a news service and an end to the practice of capital punishment. Hong Rengan then authored another military campaign that was approved by Hong Xiuquan. Forces under Li Xiucheng moved east in an effort to capture the city of Shanghai. Suzhou fell to Li and his forces on June2, 1860. Encouraged by the easy conquest of the "Venice of the East" the Loyal Ling (Li) hoped that foreigners living in Shanghai would welcome the Taiping and the bustling port would be offered up in much the same way as Suzhou. However, Li was surprised and shocked when the westerners used their superior firepower to help Qing forces defend Shanghai. Western leaders who had been neutral in the struggle between the Manchu government and the Taiping rebels have now begun to actively support the ruling dynasty that had given them new concessions in the Tientsin Treaties. Part IV: The Fall of Nanjing and the End of the Taiping Rebellion Hong Xiuquan now began to retreat more and more into mysticism and announced to the faithful that his son, Tiangui, would now deal with all worldly affairs so that Hong might concentrate on leading his followers to their heavenly place. As an indication of this increased responsibility, Hong changed his son's name to Tiangui Fu, "Heaven's Precious Happiness." In his dreams, Hong now claimed to visit heaven and slay tigers and dogs that represent the demon-devils. He indicated that these dreams were proof of his assertion that the Taiping will last the full ten thousand years. On October 13, 1860, Issachar Roberts arrived in Nanjing thirteen years after Hong had studied under him in Canton in preparation for the aborted baptism. Hong welcomed Roberts, gave him free room and board, and even encouraged his former teacher to dress in Taiping clothing. Yet, at their only meeting Roberts was appalled when he discovered that he was expected to kneel in the presence of his former pupil, and was told that he may only preach the Taiping version of Christianity. Roberts would never meet with Hong again. In May 1861, Hong announced a change in name from that of "Taiping Heavenly Kingdom" to "God's Heavenly Kingdom." The Lord of Ten Thousand years had now secluded himself completely and met only with his family and closest confidants. All hopes that Roberts cherished on converting Hong to a more orthodox version of Christianity were dashed by the latter's claim to his own personal divinity as the younger brother of Jesus and God's second born. On January 20, 1862, Roberts left the city of Nanjing and claimed in the press that Hong Xiuquan was "a crazy man, unfit to rule (and) without an organized government."10 The Taiping attempt to conquer Shanghai in early 1862 was thwarted, not only by the defenders of the city, but also by some very unusual and inclement weather. A heavy snow began to fall January 26, and reached a depth of over thirty inches in just three days. Temperatures quickly dropped to ten degrees Fahrenheit and Taiping forces were left stranded without winter garments, and unable to break the ice which had clogged the river. After the failure of this eastern expedition it was the area around Nanjing itself which now became the battleground. The land had been depleted and the villages devastated by the constant marches and counter-marches of the various armies which were active in the area. Locals were being encountered who had the four Chinese characters "Heavenly Kingdom of Great peace" tattooed on their faces in an effort by Taiping leaders to prevent their fleeing combat. Others were seen who cheek were scarred by attempts to remove these characters with a knife. Popular opinion began to turn against the Taiping, and Chinese peasants started to form their own militias in an attempt to drive the longhaired rebels out of their villages. The Taiping warriors, once feared and respected, now appeared to be underfed, inadequately washed, and festered with disease; conditions that even their bright silk costumes were unable to conceal. Nanjing is surrounded by Manchu forces and the Ever-Victorious Army (a force composed mainly of Chinese first led by the American Fredrick Ward and after his death by the British General Charles "Chinese" Gordon. In June 13, 1863, in the province of Sichuan nearly one thousand miles away from the heavenly capital, Shi Dakai (Wing King) is forced to surrender. He is then executed by dismemberment and all of his followers are immediately massacred. In December 1863, Suzhou also falls, and once again the civilian population, along with their Taiping leaders, are all killed. Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang11 gradually begin to tighten the noose around the isolated Garrison at Nanjing and cut off all supply routes to the city. By the spring of 1864, the residents of Nanjing have reached a state of starvation. Hong attempted to reassure them and told them that God would protect his people by scattering manna on the ground as he had once done for the children of Israel. Hong then set about gathering weed, claiming to followers that these were the promised manna. He began to eat his clotted harvest and instructed his subjects to also partake in this gift from God. In April 1864 shortly after his 50th birthday, Hong became ill, probably from his ingestion of this "manna." On May 30, 1864, it is announced that Hong has paid a visit to heaven to request that his Heavenly Father and his Elder Brother send a celestial army to defend the Taiping capital. However, before the promised forces arrive, it is announced that the heavenly King has died. His body is then wrapped in a yellow shroud and placed in the bare ground as was the custom method for burial among the Taiping.12 On June 2, 1864, Tiangui Fu ascended to the throne vacated by his father and began a reign that would last only six weeks. Around noon on July 19, 1864, the eastern walls of Nanjing were breached when Zeng Guofan ordered his troops to fire explosives placed in tunnels that had been dug beneath the walls of the city. Qing forces poured through the breach while Tiangui Fu, Li Xiucheng (Loyal King) and other member of the royal party fled into the night disguised in Qing army uniforms. Tiangui Fu's two younger brothers were among the thousands that perished as government forces pillaged the city. Li Xiucheng was captured and executed after being deserted by the royal party when his horse collapsed. The young monarch was able to reach Huzhou where Hong Rengan (Shield King) still commanded a Taiping garrison. These troops were isolated, however, and surrounded by a combination of government troops and the "Ever Triumphant Army".13 Through French forces continued to support the ruling dynasty, England had withdrawn from the conflict and the "Ever Victorious Army" had been disbanded. In August 1864, Hong Rengan and Tiangui Fu were forced to flee Huzhou, and were quickly captured by Qing forces. The young monarch threw himself upon the mercy of the state, disclaimed any part in the conquests of his late father, and requested that he be allowed to live so that he might study Confucian classics and sit for the government exams as his father had done nearly three decades before. His request was denied and he was executed on November 18, 1864, just one week prior to his 15th birthday. A few days later Hong Rengan met a similar fate. With their deaths, the rebellion and the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom had come to an end. In its wake a large part of Eastern China was left devastated and over 20,000,000 of its citizens were dead.14 Perhaps its obituary is best expressed by John Patrick Davies Jr. Hung (Hung Hsiu-ch'uan)15 the visionary fanatic became the magnetic leader of a peasant uprising, whose origins were not spiritual longing but material destitution. The goading poverty, in turn, was caused by overpopulation and economic dislocation. Had it not been for the great groundswell of popular discontent, Hung would not have gone beyond being an obscure religious crackpot, unnoticed in history. 16 Notes on the Taiping Rebellion 1. Under Chinese law, the family could be punished for the actions of one of its member, even if that member was insane. 2. Jonathon Spence, "God's Chinese Son" p. 65. 3. Spence, p. 67 4. The rulers of the Qing dynasty required ethnic Chinese to wear a queue (pigtail) with the rest of the head being shaved. 5. This was why many communists later claimed the Taiping as a forerunner of their revolution (minus the religious aspect, of course). 6. Jean Chesneaux, Marianne Bastid, Marie-Claire Bergere, "China: from the Opium War to the 1911 Revolution," p. 97. 7. Transgressors of Taiping law were soaked with oil and set afire. 8. Spence, p. 254 9. Much of Suzhou is built on the Grand Canal and other small waterways, thus, the similarity with Venice. 10. Spence, p. 298. 11. Zeng Guofan had originally organized a private army, but was so successful in this endeavor that he was made commander of the Qing forces. Li Hongzhang worked closely with Zeng and later became his protegee. 12. In an earlier decree, Hong Xiuquan had declared that coffins were not necessary because the resurrection of the faithful took place so soon after death. 13. This was a combined force of Chinese and Filipino mercenaries, which was commanded by French officers. 14. Some sources estimate that there may have been as many as 30,000,000 killed. 15. This is the Wade-Giles romanization. Under Pinyin adopted by Beijing in 1979, it is Hong Xiuquan. 16. John Patrick Davies Jr., "Dragon by the Tail," p. 79. The Taiping Rebellion: Cast of Characters Feng Yunshan a relative and early convert of Hong Xiuquan, later named "South King" Gordon, Charles British general who commanded the "Ever Victorious Army" after the death of Fredrick Ward Hong Renfa elder brother of Hong Xiuquan, later named as "Peace King" Hong Renda elder brother of Hong Xiuquan, later names as "Blessings King" Hong Rengan cousin of Hong Xiuquan, early convert, later named as "Shield King" and executed by Qing forces Hong Xiuquan Leader of Taiping Rebellion and "Heavenly King," dies in 1864 Li Hongzhang protegee of Zeng Guoquan, on eof the leaders of Qing forces Li Jingfeng relative and early convert who engaged in baptism with Hong Xiuquan Li Xiucheng "Loyal King," executed by Qing forces in 1864 Qin Rigang Taiping general, killer of Yang Xiuqing, executed by Qing in 1863 Roberts, Issachar missionary who prepared Hong Xiuquan for his aborted baptism in Canton Shi Dakai Taiping commander and "Wing King," executed by Qing in 1863 Stevens, Edwin American missionary who gave Hong Xiuquan the book from which he first studied Christian teachings Tiangui Hong Xiuquan's son, executed by Qing on November 18, 1864 Ward, Fredrick American commander of "Ever Victorious Army" until his death Wei Changhui "North King," one of the killers of Yang Xiuqing, later executed by Hong Xiuquan Xiao Chaogui "West King," voice of Jesus, killed by Qing sniper Yang Xiuqing "East King," voice of God, later murdered in power struggle with Hong Xiuquan Zeng Guofan leader of Qing forces who helped defeat Taiping Important Dates in the Life of Hong Xiuquan 1814 Hong Xiuquan is born 1836 Hong Xiuquan fails exam for scholar bureaucracy and receives book on Christianity 1837 Hong fails exam for second time 1843 Hong fails exam for the fourth time and finally reads the book on Christianity 1844 Hong begins to travel and preach is new beliefs 1847 Hong Studies with Issachar Roberts in preparation for formal baptism which never takes place due to some disagreement 1849 The birth of Hong's son whom he names Tiangui 1850 Hong formally declares the creation of the "Taiping Heavenly Kingdom" 1853 The Taiping capture the cities of Wuchang and Nanjing 1856 Hong Xiuquan order the death of Yang Xiuqing after a power struggle 1860 Taiping troops capture Suzhou. Issachar Roberts returns to Nanjing and meets with Hong whom he later denounces. 1862 Taiping troops are defeated in their efforts to take Shanghai 1863 Qing Forces recapture Suzhou 1864 Hong Xiuquan dies and Tiangui begins a six-week reign. Nanjing falls, Tiangui is executed, and the rebellion is crushed. Listing of Sources Chesneaux, Jean; Bastid, Marianne; and Bergere, Marie Claire "China: From the Opium Wars to the 1911 Revolution" (Pantheon Books, 1976). Davies, John Patrick Jr. "Dragon by the Tail" (W.W. Norton & Co., 1972). Franz, Michael and Chang, Chung-li "The Taiping Rebellion: History and Documents" (University of Washington Press, 1971). Heath, Ian and Perry, Michael "The Taiping Rebellion 1851-1866" (Osprey Press, 1994). Perry, Elizabeth J. "Rebels and Revolutionaries in North China 1845-1945" (Stanford University Press, 1980). Shih, Vincent Y.C. "The Taiping Ideology" (University of Washington Press, 1967). Spence, Jonathon D. "God's Chinese Son: The Taiping Heavenly Kingdom of Hong Xiuquan" (Norton, 1977). Spence, Jonathon D. "The Taiping Version of a Christian China 1836-1864" (Baylor University Press, 1996).